gokulkr 1 Report post Posted January 31, 2004 Darshan The Language of the Eyes by Sukulina Devi When we go to the Mandir our eyes meet the powerful, eternal gaze of Bhagavan Narayan. This is taking darshan. Darshan means “auspicious sight” of the divine. Since Narayan is present in His image, beholding His murti (deity) is an act of worship and through the eyes we gain His blessings. God gives darshan and the devotees take darshan. What does this mean? What is given and what is taken? The Divine presents Itself to be seen and devotees “receive” the darshan. Not only does the worshiper see the Deity, but the Deity sees the worshiper as well. The contact between devotee and Deity is exchanged through the eyes. This is the “language of the eyes”. Seeing is also a kind of touching. In looking at God’s image we reach out for the Divine. We pray to the Divine and hope that as the dearmost friend in our heart, God has heard our prayers. God’s darshan is a window into Vaikuntha and thus we get a glimpse of the spiritual realm. Bhagavan Narayan and Shri Lakshmi Devi are the embodiment of all opulence, therefore, They are all attractive. We hope that what catches the eye may capture the heart. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted January 31, 2004 Om Namo Bhagavathe Vasudevaya Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 1, 2004 There was a hill named Trikuta. It was famed for its beauty and was surrounded on all sides by an ocean of milk. The creepers which grew on the hill were incandescent like gold and silver and the quarters would glow because of the light from the hill. It was a hundred yojanas in extent. Conchs were there in plenty and precious stones as well. From a height, the earth, dark in colour, the sea white and milky and the hill green in colour with the trees and shrubs and creepers together gave the effect of an emerald set in silver. It was a beautiful hill. Wild animals were there and sweet music from the nests of birds would mingle with the roar of lions and tigers that lived in the caves. The fragrance of the air which had been perfumed by the many sweet-scented flowers would draw divine beings to spend their time there. It became the playground of many of the divine beings. Siddhas, Charanas and Gandharvas would go there very often and spend their time in the caves and valleys which glowed with the lustre of the many precious gems embedded in the rocks. In that hill was a garden named Rituman. It was crowded with flowering trees of every kind:--- Mandara, Parijata, Ashoka, Champaka, Chuta, and fruit trees like pomegranate and mango. There were tall trees which touched the skies, Devadaru and Sala trees. The garden belonged to Varuna. There was also a beautiful lake in that hill. It was a very large lake and on its face floated blue, white and red lotuses. The makaranda from them was so profuse that there could always be heard the humming of summer bees which were hovering around the flowers. Water birds like the crane and the swan were always found there and the fish and the tortoises inside the water could be seen clearly since the water was so pellucid. The banks of the lake had flowering shrubs like the jasmine, the kunda and the jaji: punnaga, and Kuravaka and the creeper Madhavi. The scent there was so overpowering that one felt faint. In that hill dwelt an immense elephant with his entire herd. He would wander at will and his herd would always be with him. His favourite pastime was to uproot the bamboo groves. The tender sprouts from the canes were the favourite food of the elephants and they would wander at will in the forest. The elephant was so wild and so powerful that even wild animals like the lion and tiger and wild boar and bulls would run from the spot where the elephant stood. Once during summer, after a long march with his companions, the elephant was feeling very tired and extremely thirsty. From a distance he smelled the perfume which was part of the lake and he went fast towards the lake. His herd came with him and soon they reached the lake and entered it. It was refreshing to bathe in the lake and to drink the sweet water. Once their thirst was quenched they did not feel like coming out of the lake. They spent a long time playing in the clear water and making it muddy and full of mire. The master elephant would take water in his trunk and pour it over the backs of the small ones and the she-elephants. Like a man absorbed in the pleasures of Samsara takes no heed of the fact that his life is getting shorter day by day, the elephant paid no heed to the passage of time. All unaware of the danger lurking in the waters he went on playing, like a samsari who does not see that it is a trap to catch him and bind him for ever. Instigated by Fate, a crocodile which had been living in the lake for a long time grasped the leg of the elephant in its mighty jaws. The unexpected pain made the elephant wince and he tried to shake off the crocodile. But it was not possible. Try as he might, the elephant found it impossible to get out of the clutches of the crocodile. His companions tried to help him but it was all in vain. The grip of the crocodile was too strong and the elephant, strong as he was, was not strong enough to shake off the crocodile. The tussle went on for a long time, for years. Even the devas were present to see this mighty duel between the lord of the forest and the king of the rivers. Slowly but very steadily the strength of the elephant was ebbing away. The crocodile was winning; he found himself growing stronger and more powerful. The elephant finally realised that it was, for him, a losing fight and that soon his life would also leave his body. At that moment he began to see everything in the proper perspective. He pondered for a long while and told himself: "I am in great trouble and these, my dependants are unable to extricate me from my predicament. I have realised that no one can help me now in this dire calamity which has befallen me. But still, I have one hope. I can surrender to the Lord who is the refuge of even gods like Brahma. He is sure to protect me from the dread serpent called Yama who is trying to frighten me. If He is with me, death himself will flee from me since he is afraid of the Lord. I will pray to the Lord." He composed his mind and his thoughts, and set them steadily on Narayana and began his song of praise. He said: "Salutations to you, Lord of lords.You are the Ancient; the Purusha and the Prakriti born of Purusha. You are the light which illumines the intellect of humans. This entire universe is established in you. It was born of you and it has no existence apart from you. After creating it, you, at the time of the deluge, withdraw it into yourself. You are the light beyond the sources of all light. "You stand at the edge of the sea of darkness, of Tamas which is all that is found at the end of Pralaya and you bring new life into the new creation which is born of the old. The cycle is unending and you are the cause behind the cosmos. It is to have a vision of you that rishis spend millions of years absorbed in meditation. You have no birth: no Karma to perform: no names nor any qualities to distinguish you from the others. And yet out of your Maya you create forms for yourself and these have names and qualities ascribed to them. "The formlessness of you is forgotten by those who see you take up a form for the good of the world. You are beyond the reach of the senses, the mind, the emotions, the intellect. Still though you are beyond comprehension there are some who have realised you by becoming one with you. "You are the seer, the Drastha, for the functioning of the Indriyas and their different individual behaviour. You are the cause of everything but nothing has caused you since you are Ancient: eternal: everlasting: without a beginning and so, without an end. There is no limit to you since you are Infinite. "You are unaffected by the gunas and their interplay and, as a result, those who succumb to the Maya caused by the gunas are not able realise the truth about you. Even as the glow from the sun and the fire erupt from it, glow for a while and are lost in the source itself, even so, your glory emanates from you. This stream of gunas, this mind, intellect, senses, and the bodies which enjoy these are all born out of you: and in the end are again lost only in you. They have no seperate entity. Famed as you are to be beyond the gunas, still,you have been known to be the personification of compassion as far as beings like me are concerned: beings who surrender themselves entirely to you are sure to be cured of their ignorance, their Avidya and will be made to have a vision of the Truth that is you. "This birth of mine which is full of Avidya inside as well as outside, this elephant's form and mind is of no use to me. I have no desire to live anymore. I want that Moksha which will not be destroyed by the passage of time. Punya which is acquired is rewarded by a length of time in heaven. When that Punya gets exhausted man is again thrown back to the world of sin. I want a Moksha different from this. I want to be cured of Avidya. I am a Mumukshu and I salute you who is the cause of this Universe: who pervades everything: and yet, who is apart from all that you have created: who is the Ultimate Truth. Yogis see you in their hearts since their Karmas and the results of their Karmas have all been burned in the flame of self-knowledge. The greatness that is you is hidden from foolish beings like me because our thinking is clouded by the sense of "I" and "MINE" I surrender myself to that Infinite Power, Truth, Light that is you. The devas and Brahma and all the others were listening to the words of the elephant. The praise was for the Purusha and each one them knew that he was not fit for the words of praise which were used by the animal. Narayana was touched by the plight of the elephant and assuming the form Hari, appeared before him on the shores of the lake. Garuda was carrying Him. In his hand glowed the Sudarshana Chakra. Looking on him the elephant raised his trunk which held a lotus and said: "Lord! Narayana! I salute you." Narayana was overcome with compassion for the poor elephant and his plight. He entered the lake, killed the crocodile with His Sudarshana and pulled the elephant out of the lake. To the leg of the elephant was still clinging the dead form of the crocodile with its mouth gaping open. All the denizens of the heavens were watching in awe. They stood around the Lord and the elephant, exhausted by the fight which had lasted all these years, was standing with its trunk still raised aloft. With infinite love the Lord accepted the lotus which was held in the trunk and the elephant was happy. GLOSSARY: Avidya: Spiritual ignorance. Because of one's Avidya one does not realise the Truth about the Brahman which alone exists. Drastha: A seer: one who sees mentally Indriya: An organ of sense Karma: Action, work, deed. Fate, the certain consequence of acts done in a former life Maha Pralaya: The Great Dissolution --the total annihilation of the Universe at the end of the life of Brahma when all the worlds with their inhabitants, the gods, saints,- including Brahma himself are all annihilated. Maya: In Vedantic philosophy, it is unreality: the illusion by virtue of which one considers the unreal Universe as really existent and, as distinct fron the Supreme Spirit Moksha: Final emancipation, deliverance of the soul from recurring births and transmigration: the last of the four ends of human existence: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha Mumukshu: One who desires Mukti(Liberation) Punya: Good work, meritorious act. Purusha: The Supreme Being: the Soul of the Universe Tamas: Literally, darkness. In Vedanta, it is one of the three qualities or constituents of everything in nature, the other two being Sattva and Rajas Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 2, 2004 Q. What is a Vaishnava? Q. What is reincarnation? A. Vaishnavism is a path of Hinduism in which Vishnu is worshiped as the Lord. Lord Vishnu has many incarnations, but they all lead back to the same place, Vishnu. Different sects of Hinduism worship different incarnations of Vishnu. Some Vaishnavas prefer to worship Krishna as The Lord of which Vishnu is a manifestation. Devotees of Krishna are very much in love with him, his eternal consort Shrimati Radharani and his many pastimes in the pastures of Vrindavana. A. Reincarnation in the process by which a Hindu is liberated. We take birth in many different forms and work off our karma. Eventually we are fortunate and take birth as a human being. In the human form the goal is to surrender oneself to God completely in order to obtain liberation from this cycle of suffering, birth and death, Moksha. More technically... In the Bhagavad Gita it is stated, "As the embodied soul continually passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death. The self-realized soul is not bewildered by such a change." The Vedas further explain that the soul in the material world transmigrates within a cycle of material birth and death through 8,400,000 forms of life. The human form of life, however, is the only birth which affords one the chance for self-realization. Lower-than-human species are not endowed with sufficient intelligence to understand the self as different from the body. Q. What is a Hindu? Q. Why don't you eat meat? A. Tough question. The dictionary describes a Hindu as: Etymology: Persian Hindu inhabitant of India, from Hind India 1662 1 : an adherent of Hinduism 2 : a native or inhabitant of India Definition of what makes one a basic Hindu, as quoted by India's Supreme Court. On July 2, 1995, the Court referred to it as an "adequate and satisfactory formula." "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and the realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshiped is large, that indeed is the distinguishing feature of the Hindu religion." B.G. A. The Vedic scriptures establish nonviolence, ahimsa, as the ethical foundation of vegetarianism. According to the Vedas, God is the Supreme Father of all creatures, not just humans. Therefore, the slaughter of innocent animals is considered equivalent to killing one's brother or sister. Vaishnava devotees follow a wholesome lacto-vegetarian diet excluding meat, chicken, fish, and eggs. Although it may be argued that vegetarians are guilty of killing vegetables, vegetarian foods such as fruits, nuts, milk, and grains do not require killing. But even when a plant's life is taken, the pain involved is dramatically less than that of a highly-sensitive animal such as a cow or lamb. According to the law of karma, nature's law of action and reaction, human beings must suffer for any kind of killing that is against God's laws. For this reason, as well as to show recognition for the Supreme Proprietor and supplier of all foodstuffs, devotees prepare vegetarian meals as devotional offerings to the Lord. The food is then called prasadam (spiritual food), which can then be fully enjoyed without karmic reaction. Q. What is a Bhagavad Gita? Q. What's with the dot? A. Literally, song of the blessed one (Krishna) circa 1785 : a Hindu devotional work in poetic form spoken by Krishna to his nephew Arjuna (one of the Pandavas) on the battlefield before the great war described in the Mahabharata. A. There are many stories behind this custom, however the simplest explanation is that it shows chastity for a married woman. For others it is simply an adornment. Q. Who is Vishnu? Q. Who is The Elephant Guy? A. Vishnu is the preserver God in the Hindu triad (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) and also considered "The GOD" by Vaishnava's who believe that all other Gods are a manifestation or incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu is worshiped in many different forms such as Krishna, Narayana, Vasudeva etc. Demigods such as Indra are considered subservient to Vishnu and most are great devotees as well. Lord Vishnu exists in many forms simultaneously and can have different names depending on what he is doing. Maha Vishnu (considered the main Vishnu) sits or lays upon the great serpent Shesha in the ocean of milk. A. Ganesha or Ganupati is an extremely popular God in India. He is called Vighneshvara or Vighnaharta, the Lord of and destroyer of obstacles. People mostly worship Him asking for siddhi, success in undertakings, and buddhi, intelligence. He is worshipped before any venture is started. He is also the God of education, knowledge and wisdom, literature, and the fine arts. Shiva is Ganesha's father and Parvati or Durga is considered his Mother. There is a great story behind how he ended up with an Elephants head. Click here for more information. Click Here to visit a Temple dedicated to Ganesha (great site!) Q. Who is Brahma? Q. Who is Shiva (Siva)? A. Brahma is the God of creation. When the universe is created, Brahma is born from a lotus flower which emanated from Lord Vishnu's navel. Lord Brahma does the actual creation by his meditation. A. Shiva is the God of destruction and regeneration. Some sects of Hinduism are dedicated solely to the worship of Lord Shiva. They are called Shivites. Shiva is also Ganesha's father and Durga's husband. Q. Is Hinduism a polytheistic religion? Q. Who is Durga? A. Not exactly, there is one GOD and many manifestations of this God. There are also many Demigods who are worshiped for various reasons, but all offerings are eventually meant for the Lord. A. Parvati, as she is sometimes called, is the consort of Shiva and the mother of Ganesha. She is worshiped for many different material things like money, knowledge and good fortune. She is considered the female element of Lord Shiva or "Shakti". Q. Are cows god? Do I have to be born a Vaishnava? A. No, but they are very dear to the Lord and are therefore worshipped with reverence. Cows are treated like our mothers because they provide us with many great foodstuffs like milk, cheese, cream etc., but not meat. Vaishnava's do not eat meat, fish or eggs. A. No, anybody can become a Vaishnava. Some sects of Hinduism contend that one must be born into the religion. Vaishnavas on the other hand believe that anyone who has the desire to worship the Lord can do so and be liberated. Man is the only creature capable of making a choice and should therefore take this most fortunate opportunity. Q. Where can I get more information on Vaishnavism / Hinduism? Q. Where can I get those cool clothes? A. Visit more sites like this, take a look at the links and temple section. Visit some temples, ask questions and keep an open mind. Hinduism is one of the oldest religions still in existence and hence is rich with many different traditions. A. Your local Indian market should be able to direct you to a store. There are also many Internet sites available. Look up Slavaarkami (women's suit), Sari (women's traditional dress), Dhoti (men's traditional dress, Payjama (men's suit). Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
Guest guest Report post Posted February 3, 2004 A Religion of Tolerance Hinduism is unique in many ways. One of the most endearing aspects of Hinduism is it's religious tolerance. One devotee may worship Vishnu, another may worship Shiva, and yet another Krishna, while honoring the other's choice and feeling no sense of conflict. Hinduism is a religion of tolerance that allows for different types of worship, and personal expressions of devotion. This extends beyond the religion itself to include other cultures. A Hindu is content to allow a Christian to worship Christ or a Bhuddist to revere Buddha. This tolerance goes so far as to allow Hindus to recognize Buddha or Jesus as a worshipable figure in their own right. Most Hindus believe that all religions eventually lead to the same destination and that though the means may be different the end is the same. The Webmaster Sects of Hinduism Basic Information Hinduism Founded: Hinduism, the world’s oldest religion, has no beginning - it predates recorded history. Founder: Hinduism has no human founder. Major scriptures: The Vedas, Agamas and more. Adherents: Nearly one billion, mostly in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Malaysia, Indonesia, Indian Ocean, Africa, Europe and North and South America. Sects: There are four main denominations: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. Synopsis: Hinduism is a vast and profound religion. It worships one Supreme Reality (called by many names) and teaches that all souls ultimately realize Truth. There is no eternal hell, no damnation. It accepts all genuine spiritual paths - from pure monism (God alone exists) to theistic dualism (When shall I know His Grace?). Each soul is free to find his own way, whether by devotion, austerity, meditation (yoga) or selfless service. Stress is placed on temple worship, scripture and the guru-disciple tradition. Festivals, pilgrimage, chanting of holy hymns and home worship are dynamic practices. Love, nonviolence, good conduct and the law of dharma define the Hindu path. Hinduism explains that the soul reincarnates until all karma are resolved and God Realization is attained. The magnificent holy temples, the peaceful piety of the Hindu home, the subtle metaphysics and the science of yoga all play their part. Hinduism is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where man and God are one. Denominations Hinduism is composed of four main denominations - Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism Goals of the four Major Hindu sects: Shaivism: The primary goal of Shaivism is realizing one’s identity with God Shiva, in perfect union and non-differentiation. This is termed nirvikalpa samadhi, Self Realization, and may be attained in this life, granting moksha, permanent liberation from the cycles of birth and death. A secondary goal is savikalpa samadhi, the realization of Satchidananda, a unitive experience within super consciousness in which perfect Truth, knowledge and bliss are known. The soul’s final destiny is vishvagrasa, total merger in God Shiva Shaktism: The primary goal of Shaktism is moksha, defined as complete identification with God Shiva A secondary goal for the Shaktas is to perform good works selflessly so that one may go, on death, to the heaven worlds and thereafter enjoy a good birth on earth, for heaven, too, is a transitory state. For Shaktas, God is both the formless Absolute (Shiva) and the manifest Divine (Shakti), worshiped as Parvati, Durga, Kali, Amman, Rajarajeshvari, etc. Emphasis is given to the feminine manifest by which the masculine Un-manifest is ultimately reached. Vaishnavism: The primary goal of Vaishnavites is videha mukti, liberation - attainable only after death - when the small self realizes union with God Vishnu’s body as a part of Him, yet maintains its pure individual personality. Lord Vishnu - all-pervasive consciousness - is the soul of the universe, distinct from the world and from the jivas, "embodied souls", which constitute His body. His transcendent Being is a celestial form residing in the city of Vaikuntha, the home of all eternal values and perfection, where the soul joins Him upon mukti, liberation. A secondary goal - the experience of God’s Grace - can be reached while yet embodied through taking refuge in Vishnu’s unbounded love. By loving and serving Vishnu and meditating upon Him and His incarnations, our spiritual hunger grows and we experience His Grace flooding our whole being. Smartism: The ultimate goal of Smartas is moksha, to realize oneself as Brahman - the Absolute and only Reality - and become free from samsara, the cycles of birth and death. For this, one must conquer the state of avidya, or ignorance, which causes the world to appear as real. All illusion has vanished for the realized being, Jivanmukta, even as he lives out life in the physical body. At death, his inner and outer bodies are extinguished. Brahman alone exists. Paths of Attainment: Shaivism: The path for Shaivites is divided into four progressive stages of belief and practice called charya, kriya, yoga and jnana. The soul evolves through karma and reincarnation from the instinctive-intellectual sphere into virtuous and moral living, then into temple worship and devotion, followed by internalized worship or yoga and its meditative disciplines. Union with God Shiva comes through the grace of the satguru and culminates in the soul’s maturity in the state of jnana, or wisdom. Shaivism values both bhakti and yoga, devotional and contemplative sadhanas. Shaktism: The spiritual practices in Shaktism are similar to those in Shaivism, though there is more emphasis in Shaktism on God’s Power as opposed to Being, on mantras and yantras, and on embracing apparent opposites: male-female, absolute-relative, pleasure-pain, cause-effect, mind-body. Certain sects within Shaktism undertake "left-hand" tantric rites, consciously using the world of form to transmute and eventually transcend that world. The "left-hand" approach is somewhat occult in nature; it is considered a path for the few, not the many. The "right-hand" path is more conservative in nature. Vaishnavism: Most Vaishnavas believe that religion is the performance of bhakti sadhanas, and that man can communicate with and receive the grace of Lord Vishnu who manifests through the temple Deity, or idol. The path of karma yoga and jnana yoga leads to bhakti yoga. Among the highest practices of all Vaishnavas is chanting the holy names of the Avataras, Vishnu's incarnations, such as Rama and Krishna. Through total self-surrender, called prapatti, to Lord Vishnu, liberation from samsara is attained. Smartism: Most Smarta-Liberal Hindus believe that moksha is achieved through jñana yoga alone—defined as an intellectual and meditative but non-kundalini-yoga path. Jnana yoga's progressive stages are scriptural study (Shravaa), reflection (manana) and sustained meditation (dhyana). Guided by a realized guru and avowed to the unreality of the world, the initiate meditates on himself as Brahman to break through the illusion of my. Devotees may also choose from three other non-successive paths to cultivate devotion, accrue good karma and purify the mind. These are bhakti yoga, karma yoga and raja yoga, which certain Smartas teach can also bring enlightenment. One other sect of note. Brahmism Worship of the Creator Early Indian mythological writings spoke of the Godhead as having three functions: Creation, Preservation, and Dissolution of the Cosmos. Corresponding to these three functions are three deities, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, each of which formed or form the basis of a religion. The religion of Brahma is now pretty much extinct, although it was popular during and for a while after the time of the Buddha (both Buddhist and Samkhyan metaphysics - two of the oldest of the Indian metaphysical systems - incorporate the God Brahma, the Creator, into their system, although ironically both give him a rather low office. Note that there are many other sects and subsects of notable value but are much too numerous to detail on this page. Worship and Puja Some important rituals, beliefs and traditions keep the religion vital and hold all the sects of Hinduism together. These are puja, or daily worship; dharma, religious duties pertaining to family and society; samkara, rites of passage; samsara, beliefs in the reincarnation or reappearance of the soul in succeeding generations; and moksha, or final release from material existence. Each day, Hindus worship the divine-- either a high god or a family deity. To do this they perform puja in a sacred corner in a worship room of the home. The puja ritual keeps Hindus aware of their gods and mindful of their duties as individuals.. Nine Essential Hindu Beliefs 1. I believe in the divinity of the Vedas, the world’s most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God’s word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion which has neither beginning nor end. 2. I believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Un-manifest Reality. 3. I believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution. 4. I believe in karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds. 5. I believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karma have been resolved, and moksha, spiritual knowledge and liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be eternally deprived of this destiny. 6. I believe that divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments as well as personal devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods. 7. I believe that a spiritually awakened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry and meditation. 8. I believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, “noninjury.” 9. I believe that no particular religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine religious paths are facets of God’s Pure Love and Light, deserving tolerance and understanding. Some page content from various websites Please visit the following sites for more information. http://www.HinduismToday.kauai.hi.us http://www.hindu.org Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 4, 2004 Vaishnavism is divided into various sampradayas (sects) each interpreting the Vedanta in a different manner. Each sampradaya is founded by a particular acharaya (guru), and their respective belief systems are founded upon the teachings of the acharaya. Major Sampradayas of Vaishnavism & School of Thought Shri Vaishnava sampradaya (Vishishtaadvaita) - Shri Vaishnavas Vallabha sampradaya (Shuddhaadvaita) - Vallabhas Madhva sampradaya (Tattvavaada, aka Dvaita) - Madhva's, Haridasas Nimbarka sampradaya (Dvaitaadvaita) - Nimbarkas Gaudiya (aka Chaitanya) Vaishnava sampradaya (Bhedaabheda) - Gaudiya's, ISKCON / Hare Krishnas Introduction to the Various Vaishnava Acharaya's Viewpoints Ramanuja Acharaya School (Shri Vaishnava sampradaya) Ramanuja's philosophy of qualified monism, VISHISHTADVAITA states that although everything is indeed united with God, there are real differences between God and the souls and the world. Madhva Acharaya School (Madhva sampradaya) Madhva's philosophy of DVAITA, dualism, emphatically stresses the differences between God, the world and the souls. His dualism is in near direct opposition to Shankara's monism in that he virtually ignores any concept of oneness. Souls are of different qualities -- sattva, rajas and tamas. His philosophy is unique in teaching that not all souls will attain liberation, but that some will suffer eternal damnation. Nimbarka Acharaya School (Nimbarka sampradaya) Nimbarka was the first to identify the Supreme Brahman as the divine couple Radha-Krishna. His philosophy was DVAITADVAITA, 'oneness and difference,' a position between Shankara's world- negating monism and Madhva's radical dualism. Nimbarka treats the unity of existence and the differentiations as equally true, without putting emphasis on either aspect. Matter and souls are considered parts or 'powers' of God which are not distinct or separate from Him. Vallabha Acharaya School (Vallabha sampradaya) Vallabha taught SHUDDHADVAITA, 'pure monism.' He did not identify God and creation with the quality-less and formless NIRGUNA BRAHMAN, as Shankara did. Rather everything in this world is one with the personal God, who possesses form and qualities, SAGUNA BRAHMAN. His position is similar to Ramanuja's, except Vallabha sees everything as Krishna, or intimately and immediately related to Him. For this school, everything is God and therefore good. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu School (Gaudiya sampradaya) Chaitanya's immediate followers espoused his doctrine that everything in this world was simultaneously inconceivably one and yet different from God, ACHINTYABHEDABHEDA. God's mystical power allows Him to be simultaneously immanent and transcendent, which in turn corresponds to the devotee's experience of God's presence and absence, respectfully. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 5, 2004 What is a Vaishnava? A Vaishnava is a devotee of Vishnu. What/who is Vishnu? Vishnu is the Deity worshipped in the Vedas and their scriptural adjuncts; according to Vaishnavas, He is the Supreme Lord, and is the only entity primarily praised in all true scriptures. Vishnu is the Lord, is the Cause, the Protector, and the Destroyer of all Creation known and unknown, and is responsible for all bondage and liberation. He is beyond the scope of all that is destructible and indestructible, and His worship is the purpose of one's existence; He is free of all flaw, and has an infinite number of good attributes. Why is Vaishnavism relevant in today's world? An understanding of the higher purpose of one's life -- if any -- has always been sought by many seekers through the ages; scientific progress has not nullified or altered this basic fact. While advances in technology have tended to encourage purely materialistic and sensual pursuits, such have also helped many seekers share their common interest and enthusiasm in new ways. Thus, as with other seekers, the Vaishnavas of today seek to learn the higher spiritual truths much the same way as did their forebears of previous centuries, but have access to some of the tools provided by modern society to aid their efforts. How many Vaishnavas are there, worldwide? As nearly as we can tell, no one has conducted an official or demi-official census; however, the number of those who are Vaishnavas by birth is likely to be very large, perhaps hundreds of millions, most of whom happen to be in India. However, most such people are not practicing Vaishnavas, and have no reason to be called so except by dint of birth. Who is the founder of Vaishnavism? There is no single founder, and the worship of Vishnu cannot be reliably shown to have begun at any fixed date in the past. However, specific schools of Vaishnavism have been propounded by great teachers or Acharyas -- even so, those schools are not said to have been created by them, and in many cases pre-date them; i.e., these teachers began traditions of belief in certain doctrines that persist upto the present day, but they did not create the doctrines as such -- they either revived them, or built upon an existing but not-widely-known school to form a vigorous one. Do Vaishnavas worship other gods? Why/why not? Homage is sometimes paid to other deities, but these deities are never considered the equals of Vishnu, nor are they worshipped in the same spirit. Vaishnavas can be said to be monotheists, since they believe that there is only one Supreme Lord or Infinite Being -- Lord Vishnu. Therefore, Vaishnavas always keep the worship of Vishnu and His attendants at the forefront of their religious practice. Some Advaitins consider all deities including Vishnu to be forms of the SaguNa Brahman (the Brahman with attributes), but this belief is not universal to all Advaitins, whether or not they be Vaishnavas. The question of why Vaishnavas worship other deities is answered differently by Vaishnavas of different schools, but generally speaking, such other deities are worshipped as conduits to Vishnu, or as His representatives. As noted above, certain forms of worship under Advaita are an exception. Do Vaishnavas worship images of Vishnu? Yes, but the specific images worshipped, and the forms and rules of worship, vary greatly by different traditions. Do Vaishnavas believe in rebirth? As a general rule, Vaishnavas do not "believe" things in the same way as someone from a Semitic faith would, though some sampradayas accept certain matters on faith. Rebirth until liberation is one of the fundamental tenets of Vaishnava doctrine. Vaishnavas aim to break free of the cycle of repeated births and deaths, through devotional service to Vishnu. Are all Vaishnavas vegetarian? Most are, but depending on how (un)orthodox a Vaishnava is, (s)he may digress from the prescribed standard of culinary morality to a greater or lesser extent. Vaishnava norms require a standard somewhat beyond what is commonly considered vegetarian. While Vaishnavas are not vegans, for the most part -- they consider milk and milk products acceptable -- most reject eggs, and certain plant products grown under the soil, like onions, garlic, etc. Some Vaishnavas also do not consider certain vegetables like okra, eggplant, broccoli, etc., as acceptable diet items, but relatively fewer Vaishnavas observe the latter kind of restrictions. In general, the Vaishnava approach to food is to ask if something can be offered to Vishnu, as part of prescribed forms of worship; if yes, then that something is thought acceptable, otherwise not. Thus, the system excludes all but a certain number of food items considered acceptable. While the exact details of what are acceptable and what not vary between different schools of Vaishnavism, and even between different institutions within the same school, most practicing Vaishnavas reject such stimulants as coffee, cocoa, tea, tobacco, alcohol, and any items including these, from their diets and habits. Is it necessary to be vegetarian, to be Vaishnava? All traditional Vaishnava cooking is totally vegetarian, and it is possible that someone who insists on keeping non-vegetarian eating habits will have difficulty assimilating within a Vaishnava community. Does one have to be born a Vaishnava? No. Many Westerners have wholeheartedly taken up Vaishnavism. Historically, Vaishnavas have often run afoul of caste-conscious brahmanas because anyone can be a Vaishnava, even those who are considered outcaste. Does Vaishnavism condemn critics and opponents to hell? As Vaishnavism is not a completely unified doctrine, nor one deriving from prophets, it has never had a history of Crusades, fatwas, Inquisitions, et cetera. That said, however, many Vaishnava scriptures do seem to indicate that purely mundane forms of existence, and the worship of other deities or non-deities as the Supreme, lead to ignorance and misery. Do Vaishnavas practice dowry/bride-burning/untouchability/etc.? While specific individuals or groups of individuals may practice such and also claim to be Vaishnavas, such practices have no backing from Vaishnava scriptures or Acharyas, and are frowned upon by the sensible elements of society, including all *practicing* Vaishnavas. How is a Vaishnava different from a Hindu? Many Vaishnavas are also Hindus, but the two terms are not directly related as such. A Vaishnava is a worshipper of Vishnu, while a Hindu need not worship anyone at all, and merely comes from a specific socio-cultural background. Not all Hindus are Vaishnava, and not all Vaishnavas are Hindu. Do Vaishnavas have gurus? A definition of 'guru' is: "One who removes doubts in others, without any doubt within himself." Many Vaishnavas consider one of the great saints or Acharyas as their primary guru (muula-guru), and some also have gurus among great scholars and saints of the present day. Are Vaishnavas a cult or sect? In a fair world, perhaps it would not be inappropriate to call them so; however, in reality, most times words like 'cult' are used in a totally derogatory sense, and when applied to Vaishnavas, are used due to a misunderstanding or lack of understanding of Vaishnavism -- or due to an incorrect generalization drawn from the mala-fide actions of certain specific persons or small groups. Are there different types of Vaishnava? Yes, there are. Some of the more important traditions or sampradayas are: The Smarta sampradaya (Advaita). The Sri-Vaishnava sampradaya (Vishishtaadvaita). The Maadhva sampradaya (Tattvavaada, aka Dvaita). The Gaudiya-Vaishnava sampradaya (Bhedaabheda). The Vallabha sampradaya (Shuddhaadvaita). The Nimbaaraka sampradaya (Dvaitaadvaita). What are Vaishnava scriptures? Vaishnavas consider the triad of the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma-Suutra, which are traditionally referred to as the prasthaana-traya, as authoritative scripture. These canonical scriptures have been commented upon by the leading Acharyas of each Vaishnava school. Besides these texts, Vaishnavas also consider the Mahaabhaarata (of which the Bhagavad Gita is a part), the Bhaagavata-PuraaNa, etc., as scripture, but the relative values placed upon them by the various sampradayas are not exactly the same. Are there many Vaishnavas on the Internet? Again, we don't know because no one has, to our knowledge, conducted a census. However, from experience on the newsgroups, and with the relevant web pages that are maintained by various individuals, it can be safely estimated that there are at least several hundred individuals who use the Internet in one way or another, in pursuance of their Vaishnava interests, and all indications are that this number is growing and will continue to grow in the foreseeable future. Where can I get more information? If you're looking for information about a specific school of Vaishnavism, then you should look under the FAQ for that school (if there is one). If there is no such FAQ, or if whatever you're looking for isn't covered in the FAQ, or if you want general information about Vaishnavism not covered in this document, then your best bet is to make a posting to ..religion.vaishnava, and ask. If you aren't looking for something specific, but just want to get a general feel for Vaishnavism, then perhaps you should lurk on the newsgroup for a while. Other than that, there are a few web pages that are maintained by various individuals and institutions, that may be of some interest. Perhaps a search at for "vaishnava" would be appropriate. Appendix A: Some words often used in Vaishnava discussions. apowrusheya (also spelled 'apaurusheya') \ adj. Non-personal. Used to refer to texts that are claimed to have no authors. Also see: powrusheya. Related words: Shruti, Veda, Upanishad. avataara (also spelled 'avatara') \ n. Avatar, in the English-dictionary sense, except that it is used by Vaishnavas to refer mainly to Vishnu's incarnations, and sometimes to refer to His devotees' incarnations; not used to mean rebirths as such. bhakti \ n. devotion; specifically, devotion to Vishnu and His servants. gnyaana (also spelled 'gnaana' or 'gyaana') \ n. knowledge, as relevant to Vaishnava learning. Itihaasa \ n. Generic term used to refer to the Mahaabhaarata. One of two kinds of Smrti. Word means "thus it happened," and conveys that the text referred to is a historical account. Also see: PuraaNa. Related words: Smrti. lowkika (also spelled 'laukika') \ adj. "Worldly." Used to refer to non-spiritual objects, endeavors, etc. moksha \ n. Liberation. Is defined differently by various Vaishnava schools. Also see: mukti. mukti \ n., v. Synonymous with 'moksha'. Also see: moksha. powrusheya (also spelled 'paurusheya') \ adj. Authored (work). Applies to Smrti, and all worldly texts. Also see: apowrusheya. pratimaa \ n. Icon used in worship. PuraaNa (also spelled 'Purana') \ n. Any one of eighteen specific Smrti texts. Also see: Itihaasa. Related words: Smrti. sampradaya \ n. Spiritual tradition that follows a specific doctrine. shaastra \ n. That branch of learning which deals with the higher spiritual truths; broader than 'theology', but more specific than 'philosophy'. Shruti (also spelled 'Sruti') \ n. Generic term used to refer to any apowrusheya text. Meaning from "that which is heard" rather than composed. Also see: Smrti. Related words: apowrusheya, Veda, Upanishad. Smrti \ n. Generic term used to refer to any powrusheya text. Meaning from "that which is remembered." Also see: Shruti. Related words: Itihaasa, PuraaNa. Upanishad \ n. A certain kind of Shruti text accepted by all Vaishnava schools as conveying gnyaana; found embedded within the four Vedas, and also otherwise. Also see: Veda. Related words: apowrusheya, Shruti. Veda \ n. One of four specific apowrusheya texts (Rg, Yajus, Saama, Atharva). Also see: Upanishad. Related words: apowrusheya, Shruti. Appendix B: Pronunciation guide for Sanskrit words. Terms used here: macron = line over a letter; usually denotes a long vowel subdot = subscript dot (dot below the letter) superdot = superscript dot (dot above the letter) accent = acute accent (grave not used) diphthong = any combination of simple vowels, like ow Vowels: a = short a, pronounced as "u" in "but" aa = macron a = long a as in "father" (not like in "raw"; all vowels except dipthongs au and ai are simple liquid vowels, meaning your mouth does not move while pronouncing) i = short i as in "pin" ii = macron i = long i, pronounced as "ee" in "need" u = short u as some regional pronunciations of "push" (like a very short, soft "oo") uu = macron u = long u, as in "tube" (same caution as in aa; simple liquid vowel) R^i = subdot r = (ri is close enough, more later) R^ii = subdot macron r L^i = subdot l L^ii = subdot macron l e = liquid vowel, not quite as in "hay" (which is actually a diphthong; don't move your mouth while pronouncing) ai = diphthong; as in "aisle". Sounds somewhat like e, but there's a transition between a and i. o = liquid vowel, not quite as in "go". Keep mouth still while pronouncing. au = diphthong; as in "cow", but more like "go" with a transition between a and u. M = superdot m = nasal almost like "ng" in "sing" H = subdot h = "h" lightly echoing the preceding vowel or final component of preceding diphthong; yaH sounds like "yuh(huh)" taiH like "tie(hi)" Before a hard consonant like k, usually comes out as a stoppage of breath, almost like German ch ('ich', 'auch', 'Bach', etc.) but not voiced. Consonants: k = k without breath or aspiration kh = k with breath (most Americans aspirate everything) g = g as in go, without breath gh = gh as in ghost, with breath N^ or n = superdot n = nasal, almost always found before k or g For this reason I (Henry Groover) usually just use n. ch = as in chirp, without breath chh = same as ch with breath j = as in dge in edge jh = same as j with breath JN = tilde n = nasal found before ch or j. For this reason I usually just use n. GY = j + tilde n = combination j + JN. Pretty much as it looks. T = subdot t = t without breath, cerebral (tip of tongue touching alveolar ridge behind upper front teeth) Th = subdot t + h = t with breath, cerebral D = subdot d = d without breath, cerebral Dh = subdot d = d with breath, cerebral N = subdot n = n pronounced with tongue against alveolar ridge t = t without breath, dental (tip of tongue against back of top front teeth) th = t with breath, dental d = d without breath, dental dh = d with breath, dental n = n, dental p = p as in pay, no breath ph = p with breath (not f) b = b as in boy, no breath bh = b with breath m = m as in mama y = y as in you r = r as in ray. This is not guttural as is common with American English, but is more similar to a Spanish r. l = l as in love v = v as in vote. In a consonant combination like tva, becomes w. Some speakers always pronounce as w. S = accent s = halfway between sh and s sh = subdot s = as in hush s = s as in save h = h as in house Appendix D: Disclaimer and restrictions: Please note that this FAQ is NOT an official document representing the views of any organization or institution; it is merely the result of an attempt by a group of volunteers to aid those who may wish to use the ..religion.vaishnava newsgroup as a resource to understand, or further their understanding of, Vaishnavism. There is absolutely no guarantee of any kind made that specific answers, etc., in the FAQ will not be disagreeable to some, although such are meant to be as broadly correct as possible. This FAQ may be freely used for non-commercial purposes. However, to use it in for-profit endeavors requires specific permission to be obtained by sending mail to srv-admin@pobox.com. This document may *NOT* be reposted to any . newsgroup other than the one(s) to which it is sent by its maintainer. If you think it is appropriate to another newsgroup and would like to post it there, please request permission first. Any such re-posting of this FAQ must be only for the whole document, including this section, only. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 7, 2004 -------------- VISNUSWAMI -------------- Both Jiva Goswami in his Bhagavata Sandarbha and Krsnadasa Kaviraja in his Caitanya-caritamrta look to Sripad Visnuswami for inspiration to establish the essential difference between God and the individual souls and quote from his Sarvajnasukta, his commentary on Vedanta. Visnuswami is the founder-acarya of the Rudra sampradaya and is the oldest of the four recognized sampradayas. It is even said that Visnuswami was born in the Dravida country after the completion of the sacrifice of Janamejaya around the beginnining of Kali-yuga. Although most scholars are only able to find scanty and conflicting information on Sripada Visnuswami, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura gives us a authoritive biographical account of Visnuswami which we accept to be authoritive. There were three Acaryas bearing the name of Visnuswami in the Rudra sampradaya. The first is called Adi Visnuswami who is said to have been born about the third century B.C. in the Pandyan country. Visnuswami's father Devesvara was the royal priest and minister. Devatanu, as he was known before he took the sannyasa name of Visnuswami, was trained by his father in a vigorous theistic eduacation, to fight Buddhism. The Pandyan king exerted all his influence to crush Buddhism in particular and other non-va isnava sects in general. King Pandyovijaya and his minister, Devesvara, went to Puri and recovered the Deities of Jagannatha, Balarama and Subhadra, which had been turned into the Buddhist Dharma by Buddha and Samgha by the Buddhists. King Padyovijaya and Devesvara removed the deities from the main temple to sundaracala about two miles away by cart. This is said to be the origin of the Rathayatra of Jagannatha. Now the ceremony of conveying the Deities from the temple to the car is named Pahandi or Panduv ijaya. The word Panda is applied to the priests of Jagannatha and is said to be derived from the "Pandya". The Deities were again brought back to the temple after Buddhism had been supressed to some extent. Visnuswami was the first to adopt tridandi sannyasa which he brought into practice among his seven hundred sannyasa disciples. It was he who introduce the Astottara satanami sannyasa (108 designations of sannyasis) including the dasanami which was adopted by sankara in his sect. It was not sankara who originated it as some scholars think. Vyasesvara was the last in the line of Sannyasis, after whom the line became almost extinct, until it was revived by Raja Gopal who also assumed the name of Visnuswami in the beginning of the 9th century. His main follower was Bilvamangala. Raja Gopala Visnuswami revived the old Visnuswami line and began the active propaganda with renewed vigour and enthusiasm. He installed the Varadaraja temple in Kanci, Ranchorlal in Dwaraka and many other Deities in different places of pilgrimage. He converted many of Sankara's prominant disciples after Sankara's death. After the disappearance of the second Visnuswami a great feud took place between his community and that of Saiva sivaswami who regards Rudra as an independant God while the former holds Rudra as Guru and the intimate associate of Visnu. The Saiva opposed it vigorously and people failing to appreciate the subtle point of theism in the Suddhadvaita system of Visnuswami, became inclined to Saivite monism, which soon became embraced by the population in general. The Saivaite community taking advantage of the situation, tried to misappropriate Visnuswami s Sarvajnasukta and modified it to a great extent to suit their system. The third revival came under Andhra Visnuswami in the 13th century whose successors included Laksmana Bhatta, the father of Vallabhacarya. This Visnuswami is said to have been the son of a minister of a Dravidian prince under the Emperor of Delhi. Visnuswami's philosophy is visuddhadvaita. Brahman as Visnu, Narasimha, non-dual and having no second. Brahman has all contradictory qualities. The soul is part of Brahman like spiritual sparks, real, eternal, atomic and dependent. Creation has no motive , it is like a cosmic game and it directly emanates from Brahman. The cause of bondage is one s attachement to karma. The process of release is devotion based on Bhagavata. The goal of life is to attain uninterupted contact with Krsna, Vaikuntha salokya where there is no return. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 16, 2004 Hinduism Sub Hinduism is likened to a giant banyan tree which branches out in all directions, draws from many roots, spreads its cooling shade far and wide, yet stems from one great trunk. Ours is the world's oldest and possibly most diverse religion. In fact, it's not a single faith at all, but a mosaic of ten thousand paths and more, roughly organized in four principal sects. We explore these below. Then in the following two-page poster, we examine the subtle realm of Self Realization, atmajnana, the ultimate spiritual attainment spoken of in the Vedas and by India's sages for untold centuries. This summarizes the path we are on, where we are going and how we are going to get there. What Are Hinduism's Principal Sects? The Sanatana Dharma, or "eternal faith," known today as Hinduism, is a family of religions that accept the authority of the Vedas. Its four principal denominations are Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. Aum. The world's billion Hindus, one-sixth of the human family, are organized in four main denominations, each distinguished by its Supreme Deity. For Vaishnavites, Lord Vishnu is God. For Shaivites, God is Siva. For Shaktas, Goddess Shakti is supreme. For Smartas, liberal Hindus, the choice of Deity is left to the devotee. Each has a multitude of guru lineages, religious leaders, priesthoods, sacred literature, monastic communities, schools, pilgrimage centers and tens of thousands of temples. They possess a wealth of art and architecture, philosophy and scholarship. These four sects hold such divergent beliefs that each is a complete and independent religion. Yet, they share a vast heritage of culture and belief-karma, dharma, reincarnation, all-pervasive Divinity, temple worship, sacraments, manifold Deities, the guru-shishya tradition and the Vedas as scriptural authority. While India is home to most Hindus, large communities flourish worldwide. The Vedas elaborate, "He is Brahma. He is Siva. He is Indra. He is the immutable, the supreme, the self-luminous. He is Vishnu. He is life. He is time. He is the fire, and He is the moon." Aum Namah Sivaya. What Is the Deeply Mystical Saiva Sect? Saivism is the world's oldest religion. Worshiping God Siva, the compassionate One, it stresses potent disciplines, high philosophy, the guru's centrality and bhakti-raja- siddha yoga leading to oneness with Siva within. Aum. Saivism is ancient, truly ageless, for it has no beginning. It is the precursor of the many-faceted religion now termed Hinduism. Scholars trace the roots of Siva worship back more than 8,000 years to the advanced Indus Valley civilization. But sacred writings tell us there never was a time when Saivism did not exist. Modern history records six main schools: Saiva Siddhanta, Pashupatism, Kashmir Saivism, Vira Saivism, Siddha Siddhanta and Siva Advaita. Saivism's grandeur and beauty are found in a practical culture, an enlightened view of man's place in the universe and a profound system of temple mysticism and siddha yoga. It provides knowledge of man's evolution from God and back to God, of the soul's unfoldment and awakening guided by enlightened sages. Like all the sects, its majority are devout families, headed by hundreds of orders of swamis and sadhus who follow the fiery, world-renouncing path to moksha. The Vedas state, "By knowing Siva, the Auspicious One who is hidden in all things, exceedingly fine, like film arising from clarified butter, the One embracer of the universe-by realizing God, one is released from all fetters." Aum Namah Sivaya. What Is the Magic and Power of Shaktism? Shaktism reveres the Supreme as the Divine Mother, Shakti or Devi, in Her many forms, both gentle and fierce. Shaktas use mantra, tantra, yantra, yoga and puja to invoke cosmic forces and awaken the kundalini power. Aum. While worship of the Divine Mother extends beyond the pale of history, Shakta Hinduism arose as an organized sect in India around the fifth century. Today it has four expressions-devotional, folk-shamanic, yogic and universalist-all invoking the fierce power of Kali or Durga, or the benign grace of Parvati or Ambika. Shakta devotionalists use puja rites, especially to the Shri Chakra yantra, to establish intimacy with the Goddess. Shamanic Shaktism employs magic, trance mediumship, firewalking and animal sacrifice for healing, fertility, prophecy and power. Shakta yogis seek to awaken the sleeping Goddess Kundalini and unite her with Siva in the sahasrara chakra. Shakta universalists follow the reformed Vedantic tradition exemplified by Shri Ramakrishna. "Left-hand" tantric rites transcend traditional ethical codes. Shaktism is chiefly advaitic, defining the soul's destiny as complete identity with the Unmanifest, Siva. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Shakta agamas and Puranas. The Devi Gita extols, "We bow down to the universal soul of all. Above and below and in all four directions, Mother of the universe, we bow." Aum Chandikayai Namah. What Is the Devotional Vaishnava Sect? Vaishnavism is an ancient Hindu sect centering on the worship of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, especially Krishna and Rama. Largely dualistic, profoundly devotional, it is rich in saints, temples and scriptures. Aum. The worship of Vishnu, meaning "pervader," dates back to Vedic times. The Pancharatra and Bhagavata sects were popular prior to 300 bce. Today's five Vaishnava schools emerged in the middle ages, founded by Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Chaitanya. Vaishnavism stresses prapatti, single-pointed surrender to Vishnu, or His ten or more incarnations, called avataras. Japa is a key devotional sadhana, as is ecstatic chanting and dancing, called kirtana. Temple worship and festivals are elaborately observed. Philosophically, Vaishnavism ranges from Madhva's pure dualism to Ramanuja's qualified nondualism to Vallabha's nearly monistic vision. God and soul are everlastingly distinct. The soul's destiny, through God's grace, is to eternally worship and enjoy Him. While generally nonascetic, advocating bhakti as the highest path, Vaishnavism has a strong monastic community. Central scriptures are the Vedas, Vaishnava agamas, Itihasas and Puranas. The Bhagavad Gita states, "On those who meditate on Me and worship with undivided heart, I confer attainment of what they have not, and pre- serve what they have." Aum Namo Narayanaya. What Is the Universalistic Smarta Sect? Smartism is an ancient brahminical tradition reformed by Shankara in the ninth century. Worshiping six forms of God, this liberal Hindu path is monistic, nonsectarian, meditative and philosophical. Aum Namah Sivaya. Smarta means a follower of classical smriti, particularly the Dharma Shastras, Puranas and Itihasas. Smartas revere the Vedas and honor the agamas. Today this faith is synonymous with the teachings of Adi Shankara, the monk-philosopher, known as shanmata sthapanacharya, "founder of the six-sect system." He campaigned India-wide to consolidate the Hindu faiths of his time under the banner of Advaita Vedanta. To unify the worship, he popularized the ancient Smarta five-Deity altar-Ganapati, Surya, Vishnu, Siva and Shakti-and added Kumara. From these, devotees may choose their "preferred Deity," or Ishta Devata. Each God is but a reflection of the one Saguna Brahman. Shankara organized hundreds of monasteries into a ten-order, dashanami system, which now has five pontifical centers. He wrote profuse commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Shankara proclaimed, "It is the one Reality which appears to our ignorance as a manifold universe of names and forms and changes. Like the gold of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself unchanged. Such is Brahman, and That art Thou." Aum Namah Sivaya. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted February 22, 2004 What is Dvaita? Dvaita, or Maadhva siddhaanta, is the name for the doctrine of Vedanta that asserts the eternal and immutable difference between the individual soul, or jiiva, and the Supreme Lord, or Iishvara (also known as Vishnu). -- Why is Dvaita known as Tattvavaada? Because that is the correct, and preferred name; the doctrine asserts five differences, not just the one referred to above, and its scholars and proponents call it the "doctrine of reality," where the three kinds of entities in the universe (insentient or jaDa, sentient or chetana, and Vishnu or Iishvara) are all real, and the differences between any two are also real. Hence, 'tattva' means real entity, and 'Tattvavaada' means "doctrine of real entities." Some have also referred to Tattvavaada as Bheda-vaada (doctrine of difference), and also as Bimba-pratibimba-vaada (doctrine of object and image -- to be explained later), etc. These names are not in normal use. -- What are the five differences in Tattvavaada? Simple -- by considering the three types of entities in pairwise fashion, one can derive the list of differences between them, which are: (i) jiiva-Iishvara-bheda, or difference between the soul and Vishnu; (ii) jaDa-Iishvara-bheda, or difference between the insentient and Vishnu; (iii) mitha-jiiva-bheda, or difference between any two souls; (iv) jaDa-jiiva-bheda, or difference between insentient and the soul; and (v) mitha-jaDa-bheda, or difference between any two insentients. Here, "insentient" is used to refer to _all_ entities which are not 'chit' or having consciousness, such as matter, energy, etc. -- including so-called "living bodies" of creatures, and also such other insentients as space, linguistic or mathematical entities and their symbols, etc. To clarify: Iishvara is a sentient Being, and the jiiva is sentient also. However, this does not imply that both are fully alike; Iishvara is totally independent, while the jiiva is completely dependent. It is the energization by the Iishvara that is the responsible for the activity of the jiiva. -- Why are the five differences important? The understanding of these five differences is seemingly trivial, but upon careful consideration, one sees that to properly understand all of them, one needs to know the significant properties of every kind of entity in the whole universe! Thus, such understanding is not easily gained, and it is said that all misery and unhappiness is due to one's lack of understanding of one or more of these differences. For instance, if one acts in ignorance of the Supremacy of Lord Vishnu, and suffers as a consequence, then one can be said to have falsely arrogated to oneself His unique and irreproducible properties like independence, potency, etc. Similarly, the grief one experiences due to loss of physical beauty, strength, vitality, etc., or due to the passing of a loved one, is due to the false identification of the insentient and ever-changing body with the sentient, immutable soul. In the mundane world, mistaking copper for gold, glass for diamond, etc., which are also failures to perceive difference, are known to bring grief. One who correctly and fully perceives and understands all the five differences can be said to have attained knowledge, and to be fit for mukti (liberation). -- Who is the founder of Tattvavaada? As has been noted in the general FAQ, no school of Vaishnavism can be said to have been "founded" in a true sense; in historical times, the doctrine of Tattvavaada was revived by Ananda Tiirtha (1239-1319), also known as Sukha Tiirtha, PuurNa-bodha, and PuurNa-pragnya. Srimad Ananda Tiirtha is identified with Madhva, the third avataara (incarnation) of Mukhya PraaNa, the god of life. This identification comes from the BaLitthaa Suukta of the Rg Veda. Srimad Ananda Tiirtha is also referred to by his devotees as Srimad Acharya, and by everyone as Sri MadhvAcharya, based on the identification with the Vedic deity Mukhya PraaNa, the god of life, who is also known as Vaayu. -- What are the tenets of Tattvavaada? There are nine important points-of-note, given by a verse by Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha: which translates approximately as: "In Shriiman Madhva's school, (i) Hari (Vishnu) is supreme; (ii) the universe is real; (iii) the [five] differences are real [and are the properties of the differents]; (iv) the leagues of jiivas are cohorts of Hari; (v) and are with superiority and inferiority [among themselves]; (vi) mukti (salvation) is the experience of [the jiiva's] own innate joy; (vii) that is achieved by flawless devotion to the Supreme and correct knowledge; (viii) the three pramaaNas are aksha, etc., (pratyaksha, anumaana, aagama - sense-perception, logic, and scripture); (ix) Hari is the only entity [primarily] described in all Aamnaayas (Shrutis or Vedas)." A slightly more detailed treatment of the verse can be seen here. -- Why does Tattvavaada emphasize debate with and denunciation of other doctrines? Can it not just just state its own tenets? In order to correctly understand the tenets of any worthwhile doctrine, is it essential that one be exposed to conflicting views, and be convinced of the truth of said doctrine. Therefore, Srimad Acharya's school has always held that one needs must understand all relevant countervailing hypotheses, and must reject them only after careful analyses and consideration. Mere dogmatic repetition of facts that are accepted too readily either by accident of birth or inability to think, is not acceptable as such cannot lead to conviction; a critical examination of all Tattvavaada precepts with a detailed analysis of alternative theories in each case -- to arrive at the truth based on valid proof -- is itself part of the tradition of Srimad Ananda Tiirtha's school. Though this practice has been followed earlier by Sri ShankarAcharya and Sri RamanujAcharya also in essence, their criticisms of rival theories were not complete and comprehensive. -- Isn't Dvaita the mere opposite of Advaita? Such misperception is one of the reasons why some reject the use of 'Dvaita' to refer to the doctrine of Tattvavaada. While it is true that Advaita and Tattvavaada have had many debates over hundreds of years, and that the latter denies the jagan-mithyatva (illusory nature of the universe) that is one of the fundamental tenets of Advaita, it is certainly not the case that there is disagreement everywhere, nor is it the case that one can derive Tattvavaada merely by taking the opposite of everything claimed by Advaita. But it can be said with full certainty that on most fundamental issues such as the nature of Iishvara, jiiva, attainment of mukti, etc., the two have total and irreconcilable differences. -- Isn't Dvaita the first step towards learning Advaita? If it is, then it is a quite large, reverse, first step! While adherents of Advaita say that by nature and everyday experience one believes in the reality of the universe, etc., and that such belief must be got rid if one is to attain complete union with the nirguNa-Brahman, no serious scholar of Advaita claims that studying Tattvavaada is a first step towards learning Advaita. For one thing, it is a rule of all learning that things learned first must not contradict things learned later; for another, Tattvavaada specifically examines and denounces many Advaita concepts, and hence, one who has learned Tattvavaada first cannot possibly accept Advaita later. In fact Advaita has not built up a credible system of analysis where the puurva paksha or the initial proposition of Tattvavaada is examined and rejected thereby establishing Advaita. The exact reverse obtains today. -- Why are scholars and devotees of Sri MadhvAcharya's school referred to as "prachchhanna taarkika"? This tongue-in-cheek appellate was allegedly affixed by some followers of Advaita, who were piqued at being called "prachchhanna bauddha" (disguised Buddhists). This latter designation was used because of the great similarity between Buddhism and Advaita (both schools do not accept the reality of the universe, both deny that the Creator is an eternal real, etc.). In turn, Advaitis labeled devotees of Srimad Acharya as "prachchhanna taarkika" (disguised logicians) because of the latters' use of logic to show that Advaita is inconsistent. -- How does worship by Maadhvas differ from other Vaishnava worship? According to Sri MadhvAcharya, Vishnu is "worshippable by all (other) deities, and by everyone, to their best ability." Thus, in common with other Vaishnava traditions, Maadhvas worship other deities only as iconic representatives of the Lord, and not as independently authoritative figures. However, Maadhvas believe that all deities except for Vishnu's eternal consort Lakshmi, are amukta-jiivas (un-liberated souls) performing service to Him. Tattvavaada also does not acknowledge that worship of other claimed deities or prophets, besides those authorized by shaastra, is useful. Maadhvas have a "taaratamya" or divine hierarchy of deities after Vishnu, which is derived from shaastra sources, and said hierarchy is very important in considerations of worship, since each lesser deity is worshipped as the iconic representative of the next higher one, with the idea being that all worship is ultimately meant for Vishnu only. Thus, Maadhvas acknowledge a hierarchy of worth among deities other than Vishnu, and say that each lesser deity is akin to an image in a mirror, of the one higher. This concept of images captures both the notion of difference (since the object and its image are not identical) and an hierarchy of worth (since the image is never of the same worth as the object), and is what causes Tattvavaada to also be referred to as Bimba-pratibimba-vaada (doctrine of object and image, as mentioned previously). Worship according to Srimad Acharya's tradition also differs from certain other kinds of worship, since the icons or images used for worship are considered to be completely distinct from the Deity who is the actual object of worship. The icon is an adhishThaana, or location symbol, while the Deity is invoked for purposes of worship. Tattvavaada emphasizes that it is important to understand the difference between the adhishThaana (Image) and the aavaahita (invoked Diety), and to keep it in mind at all times -- one should never worship the icon itself as the Lord, as that would be violative of jaDa-Iishvara-bheda, one of the five kinds of difference. According to Srimad Ananda Tiirtha, icons are of two kinds: "chala-pratimaa" or "moving icon," and "achala pratimaa" or "non-moving icon." The "chala" icons are one's elders, Gurus, other deities besides Vishnu, etc., while the "achala" icons are statues, statuettes, pictures, saaligramas etc., that may also be used as icons for worship. Of the two kinds of icons, the "chala" have a naturally higher rank than the "achala" -- therefore, service to elders, one's Gurus, etc., when performed as worship of the Lord, is of greater importance than the worship of stationary symbols. However, at all times, it is important to be aware that the object or person to whom one offers service or respect, is not the Lord Himself, nor is authoritative independently of Him, but is merely His icon. A detailed account of worship at the Krishna temple in Udupi can be seen here. -- What is the Tattvavaada concept of moksha? Under Tattvavaada, the soul upon liberation does not lose his distinct identity, which is different from Vishnu, nor does he become equal to Him in any respect. While the mukta does become free of all suffering, his enjoyment is not of the same caliber as His, nor does said mukta become independent of Him. The mukta experiences the joy which is his own nature, in mukti; whereas in daily life, joy derives from the contact of senses with sense-objects, joy in mukti is due to the jiiva's own immutable nature. And because such joy is the jiiva's own nature, it does not fluctuate or end, and it is not mixed with pain. Since the nature of the jiiva is different from that of Iishvara, his joy is also of a different nature than His, even upon mukti. Even the joy which is intrinsic to the nature of the jiiva can only be realised due to the grace of the Supreme being. -- Why does Tattvavaada deny jiivan-mukti? Because a mukta, or liberated person, should not even be physically present in the material universe, unlike the un-liberated. A person who is living in the world cannot be said to be free of sorrow born of material contact, and also cannot be said to experience the joy of his own nature at all times. The very act of living in a gross material body entails things such as eating, sleeping, pleasure and pain, etc., which cannot be accepted in a mukta. -- What is the concept of scripture, according to Tattvavaada? The apowrusheya-aagamas, or unauthored scriptures, are the primary sources of all knowledge of the atiindriya (extra-sensory) entities. Only those powrusheya-aagamas or authored scriptures that closely adhere to the former have value as explanatory sources of knowledge about the atiindriya. Independent powrusheya texts are considered to bring ignorance and delusion, if used to learn about the atiindriya. In common with other schools of Vaishnavism, Tattvavaada considers the prasthaana-traya (the triad of the Brahma-Suutra, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Vedas and Upanishads) to be canonical texts. Srimad Ananda Tiirtha however denies claims that part of the Vedas, the so-called "karma-kaaNDa" or "mantra" portions, are of no use as scripture, and claims that even those parts are only meant to educate us about Hari. His school, following his lead, also does not accept that any part of the Vedas teach anything but the truth, and says that arbitration of apowrusheya texts, as "true-saying" and "false-saying" is impermissible logically and spiritually. All canonical texts must be considered, and a coherent meaning found without imposing one's own biases upon the evidence obtained. A comparison of Tattvavaada's treatment of scripture with the monists' can be seen here. Here is a detailed disquisition upon the BaLitthA Suukta of the Rg Veda. -- Who are some of the leading scholars of Tattvavaada? Historically, there have been many great scholars and saints in the tradition of Srimad Acharya. Some of them are: Sri Vaadiraaja Tiirtha -- is considered the senior-most scholar of Tattvavaada after Srimad Ananda Tiirtha himself; his works include the Yukti-Mallikaa, the RukmiNiisha-Vijaya, etc., and a number of well-known stotras; he has also translated Srimad Acharya's Mahaabhaarata-taatparya-nirNaya into Kannada, and has composed a number of devotional songs in that language. Sri Jayatiirtha -- has written commentaries on a number of Srimad Acharya's works, and is known for his extremely pleasing style of writing and argument; his work, the Nyaaya-Sudhaa, which is an exposition of Shriiman MadhvAcharya's Anu-Vyaakhyaana commentary on the Brahma-Suutra, is an outstanding example of his scholarship, and is certainly one of the greatest works in Vedanta. Sri Purandara Daasa -- is widely renowned as the father of Carnatic music; is less widely known as the founder of the Hari-Daasa tradition, that seeks to propagate the doctrine of Tattvavaada through music, in a language that ordinary people can understand. A contemporary of Sri Vaadiraaja Tiirtha and Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha, he is regarded by Maadhvas as an outstanding scholar and devotee. Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha -- wrote further commentaries on the works of Sri Jayatiirtha and Srimad Ananda Tiirtha; is known for his extra-ordinary ability to run any opponent down by force of argument; he ranks as one of the most renowned polemical scholars of Vedanta. Sri Raghavendra Tiirtha -- is widely known today, thanks to his excellent reputation for providing succor in times of major crises. Although he ranks as one of the greatest scholars of Tattvavaada, he is better known and worshipped by millions, as an infallible source of support when one is faced with dire circumstances. -- What are the Maadhva institutions of the present day? The most important one is probably the temple of Krishna at Udupi, in south-western Karnataka, India. There are eight maTha-s, called the Udupi-ashhTa-maTha-s, that are dedicated to serving Krishna, at Udupi and elsewhere. Besides these, there are several other important maThas, like the Uttaraadi MaTha (which is claimed to be the institution of Sri Jayatiirtha), and the MaThas of Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha and Sri Raghavendra Tiirtha, known by their names. -- Where can I get more information? One place to look would be the Dvaita Home Page (www.dvaita.org), which, although not nearly as complete or exhaustive as its supporters would like, still offers some information. In particular, it has some biographical information about Srimad Ananda Tiirtha and some other scholars of his school, and some bibliographical information as well. Besides these, a number of books have been written in English, especially by B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma, of which one, The History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, 1981, is considered quite broad-based, if not completely authoritative. Another work by Dr. Sharma that may be of some interest is 'Madhva's teachings in his own words'. Appendix A: terms commonly used in Tattvavaada. Canonical definitions, where known, are given within square brackets. General terms: pramaana ["yathaarthaM pramaaNam.h"] -- something that describes as-is, is called a pramaaNa. This can be of two types: kevala-pramaaNa ["yathaartha-GYaanaM kevalam.h"] -- knowledge of something as-is, is called kevala-pramaaNa. anu-pramaaNa ["tat-saadhanaM anu-pramaaNam.h"] -- the source of the previous, is called an anu-pramaaNa, which can be of three types: pratyaksha ["vishayaan.h prati-sthitaM hi aksham.h"] - flawless interaction between a sense of perception (like sight), and an object or entity in its domain, is called pratyaksha. anumaana ["tarkaH adushhTaH"] -- inference without flaw constitutes logic. Flaws of inference are described below. aagama ["adushhTa vaakya"] -- sentences, or bodies of sentences (texts) without flaw, are called aagama. Also of interest are: pramaataa ["pramaavaan.h pramaataa"] -- a person in whom pramaa exists, is the pramaataa. prameya ["pramaavishayaH prameyaH"] -- the subject of pramaa is the prameya. pramaa ["yathaarthaGYaanaM pramaa"] -- knowledge of something as-is is called pramaa. Note: pramaa thus means the same thing as kevala-pramaaNa, except that it is used in a singular sense, to denote one piece of correct knowledge, etc.; the latter is more often used to indicate a body of correct knowledge, and such. -- hetu -- antecedent, in an inference. saadhya -- consequence, likewise. upa-jiivya -- anu-pramaaNa by which hetu is known. upa-jiivaka -- anu-pramaaNa fed by, or created by, saadhya. -- Error terms. Semantic errors (shabda-dosha): virodha ["yogyataaviraho virodhaH"] -- This can loosely be translated as 'opposition,' and the definition reads loosely as: "Lack of ability is opposition." What the definition means to say is that if a statement runs counter to one already accepted, and is unable to force its own way, then it must be rejected, for being opposed to a known fact. asangati ["aakaaN^kshaaviraho asangatiH"] -- This can be translated as 'irrelevance,' and the definition reads: "Lack of fulfillment of expectation is irrelevance." In a discussion, if a reply given, a point raised, or a statement made, is not in accordance with the expectation that it be pertinent to the matter under discussion, then it is irrelevant. nyuunataa ["vivakshitaa.asaMpuurtirnyuunataa"] -- This can read as 'nullity,' with the definition reading loosely as: "Non-satisfaction of the claim constitutes nullity." In a discussion, if someone makes a claim, and later gives evidence that does not support the claim in full, then such evidence suffers from nullity, with respect to the claim. Another type is where a definition given does not cover all cases of the objects or entities to be defined. aadhikyam : ["saN^gataavadhikatvamaadhikyam.h"] -- This can be translated as 'superfluity,' and the definition as: "An excess over what is relevant, constitutes superfluity." In a discussion, if someone takes the meaning or definition of something to cover more than what it should, then such is superfluous. Another type is where a definition given covers more than the object, entity, or set to be defined. Note: nyuunataa and aadhikya have also been referred to, in special cases, as a-vyaapti (non-domination), and ati-vyaapti (over-domination). The latter, ati-vyaapti, is the error responsible for Russell's paradox. -- Logical errors (tarka-dosha): aatmaashraya : This can loosely be translated as "assuming the consequence," in some cases. More generally, however, if something "rests on itself," in the sense that an object or entity is stated to have a property such as presence within itself, support of itself, etc., then this flaw exists. A standard example is "sva-skandha-aarohaNa" or "mounting one's own shoulder." anyonyaashraya : Loosely, "mutual reliance." If a statement is proved by another, and the latter by the former, then this error exists. chakrakaashraya : "circular reliance," a.k.a. circular reasoning. A more general case of the above; if instead of two, we have 'n' number of disputed statements, that are tied in a circle so that each one proves the next, then circular reasoning is shown. anavasthaa : Infinite regress. If the proof of a statement requires an assumption, and proof of that assumption requires another, and proof of that still another, and so on, then infinite regress is said to occur. pramaa-haana : "neglect of evidence," as in, when a statement neglects to take into account the fact that it is in opposition to accepted evidence. This itself has various forms: shruta-haana (neglect of Shruti), dR^ishhTa-haana (neglect of pratyaksha), etc. kalpanaa-gaurava : "Respect for imagination." If a statement must be assumed without proof, so that an inference based upon it may be accepted, then the inference is subject to the respect that has been accorded to one's imagination, and is unacceptable. Economy in assumptions is a virtue. upajiivya-virodha : "Opposition to upajiivya." If an inference is made where the consequence runs counter to the source of knowledge by which the antecedent is known, then the inference is considered incorrect, for opposing the source of its own antecedent, and the error made is known as upajiivya virodha; as has already been noted, 'upajiivya' is the name given to the anu-pramaaNa from which the antecedent is known. apa-siddhaanta : "Invalid thesis." If a doctrine or a claim made is of such nature that its acceptance would render the doctrine itself false or without basis, then apa-siddhaanta-doshha -- the error of an invalid thesis -- is said to occur. Note: upajiivya virodha is actually a form of pramaa-haana, but is often referred to separately. Similarly, apa-siddhaanta-doshha is a form of upajiivya-virodha, but is referred to separately. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted March 9, 2004 Philosophy of dvaita vedanta: Sripada Madhvacarya, the propounder of 'Dvaita'... The criterion of reality according to Madhva is that it should not be superimposed (anaropitam) and given as an object of valid knowledge, as existing at some point of time and in some place. These two ideas are complementary and are implicit in Madhvas definition of Reality (tattvam) given by him as prameyam. Reality in the ordinary sense of the term may consist in one or more of the three aspects of existence, consciousness and activity. Though existence is thus reality, Madhva recognizes that its highest expression must be metaphysical independence of every other form of existence in finite reality, in respect of its being, powers and activity. Everything in finite reality is therefor e grounded in the Independent Reality, known as Brahman and needs it for its being and becoming. While existence in space and time is thus reality and is possessed by the world of matter and souls, there must be something more than mere existence, having metaphysical independence or substantiality in its own right which may be designated as the hig hest real or the philisophical Absolute which would be the ultimate expression of all else. Such independent reality should be immanent in the universe, whence the latter could derive and draw its sustenance. Without presupposing such a basic and transcen dental reality that would have to be immanent in the world, there would be chaos and disorder in the universe. However, Madhvas chief ontological classification of being is into principles viz. svatantra (Independent Reality) and paratantra (Dependent Reality). The term Reality represents three primary data: the thinking self, a world of external realiti es and indications of an Infinite Power rising above them. In Madhvas conclusions of Dvaita metaphysics reached by the evidence of pratyaksa anumana and sabda pramana this infinite power is that Supreme and Independent Principle which does not depend on any other for its own nature and existence, self-awa reness or for becoming an object of knowledge to the thinking selves for the free and unfettered exercise of its own powers. This svatantra-tattva (independent principle) is called God or Brahmanor Isvara. Though Brahman can do very well without pra krti or purusa (Dependent Realities), it prefers, in its infinite glory and inexorable will, to do with them. Such dependence (apeksa) of Brahman on things which are in themselves dependent on It, is no mark of inferiority or limitation. The dependence of the world of matter and the souls on Brahman is in the sense that both are functioning at His will, which is the essential condition and sustaining principle that invests them with their reality and without which they would be but void names and bare possibilities. The dependent reals (as Madhva admits the plurality of the selves), by their very nature, can have no absolute or unlimited jurisdiction over one another and are distinct from Brahman. The individual souls and their material enviornment are not independent. Madhva brings these eternal and uncreated substances under the power of Supreme Being i.e., God as svatantra, occupies the central position, with existent realities like matter and souls keeping their legitimate position under Him. Thus svatantra and paratantra are the fundamental presuppositions of Madhvas philosophy which aim at understanding the metaphysical dependence of all finite reality comprising the cetana and acetana world upon One Infinite, Indepenten t Reality. Here Madhva points out that we have no right to deny reality to the world of matter and souls, simply because they are not independentor do not always exist in the same form. But they are there, have been there and will be there though ever cha nging and depending on Brahman. Sri Madhva puts forward the idea of bimba-pratibimbabhava (Original and Reflection) to illustrate the true nature of the relationship between svatantra and paratantra. The relationship of these two is of unilateral dependence of all finite reality on the Independent principle, for its existence, knowledge, knowability, and activity (satta, pratiti, and pravrtti). The relationship is not unreal or reciprocal dependence rather the world cannot exist without God as it owes its very power of exis tence, functioning etc., to God and derives them from Him. The (symbolic) relation of bimbapratibimbabhava as conceived by Madhva would be permanent and true of all states of the jivatman and not merely as passing one, true of samsara alone. There will be no destruction of the pratibimba so long as the contact of upadhi is intact. The function of an upadhi (medium) is to manifest the pratibimba. In the present case, it is the pristine nature of the jivasvarupa itself as cit that would suffice, accordi ng to Madhva, to manifest itself to itself in its true nature of metaphysical dependence on Brahman and of being endowed with a measure of similarity of attributes (as part of the meaning ofthe word (pratibimba) with its Original (Brahman) without calli ng to aid the services of any external medium (bahyopadhi). Doctorine of Difference: It shown that matter, souls and God constitute the three major realities of Madhvas system. The number of souls is unlimited and the modifications of matter are numerous, in various states. These three are conceived as distinct entities. The reality of God is of the independent grade. That of the rest is depedent. Between matter and souls, the former is of a lesser grade of reality. It is only in this sense that the degrees of reality is explained in this system. The reality of things is space and tim e involves the differences in name, form, attributes, relations, and tendencies. These manifold differences are generally classified under these heads: (1) sajatiya or difference of one thing from others of its own kind, (2) vijatiya or difference from th ose of another kind, and (3) svagata or internal distinctions within "an organic whole". The last one is notadmitted by Madhva in its absolute sense. In the sphere of other two differences he has given a scheme of "five-fold difference" (Pancabheda) (1) the distinction between Isvara and jiva (2) the distinction between Isvara and jada (prakrti) (3) the distinction among the jivas (4) the distinction between the jiva and the jada (5) the distinction among the jadas i.e, distinction between one inanimate object and another. This fivefold difference is collectively spoken of by Madhva as "pra-panca". It is real and eternal. Epistimology (The theory of pramana): As the philosophical enquiry aims at acquiring information regarding Reality, of which definite and valid knowledge is possible, all our experience of truth (reality) has to be ascertained on the basis of some objective standards by which they are judged . Because human experience being at times vitiated by illusions, it becomes necessary to define truth in experience so as to enable us to distinguish it from the false. Epistimology deals with an investigation into the means of such valid knowledge viz., the quest for an ultimate basis of certainty of all experience and knowledge. The philosophical inquiry is the testing of truth in the light of proofs. Madhva accepts in his theory of knowledge three pramanas or means of valid knowledge. "A pramana is what comprehends an object of knowledge as it is" or is the means of such comprehension. pramana, according to Madhva, is not merely the means of correct knowledge but "truth" itself. He defines pramana, compactly and comprehensively as `yathartham. This definition covers both valid knowledge and the means thereof. There are three means of valid knowldege: prathyaksa, anumana, and sabda. Pratyaksa or sense perception is defined as the knowledge produced by the right type of contact (sannikarsa) between "flawless" sense organs and their appropriate objects. Flawless reasoning is defined as anumana. Inference is based on the rememberance of vyapti (concomittance) between hetu (probans) and sadhya (probandum). Flawless word, conveying valid sense, is "agama" or sabda. This sabdapramana is divided into pauruseya and apauruseya. The Vedic literature is regardes as apauruseya and the smritis, Puranas and other works based on Vedic authority are accepted as pau ruseya agama. The term flawlessness (nirdosatva) applies to every pramana. It refers to specific conditions under which alone the pramanas become valid means of knowledge. In the case of pratyaksa, the right kind of rapprochement between the sense-organs and the obj ect as well as other conditions of suitable distance, angle of observation, adequate light and so on are meant to be conveyed by the term nirdosa. These conditions are applicable to the object, the sense organs and their contact as well. Perception beco mes faulty through excessive remoteness, nearness or smallness of objects or of intervening obstructions or being mixed up with things similar or through being over shadowed by them. Knowledge, arising when all these conditions of flawlessness are fulfill ed, is bound to be true and valid: yathartham. Other pramanas like arthapatti (presumption) which shows a way out in cases of apparent conflict between two facts (for eg., given that Mr. X is alive, if he is not at home, he must be presumed to be out somewhere), upamana, a means of establishing sim ilarity between two things, anupalabdhi (non-apprehension) is a means by which non-existence of an object is known etc. are not considered as seperate pramana but brought under inference, perception, or verbal testimony, according to the conditions of each case. Memory is admitted as a pramana or souce of valid knowledge, by Madhva. He brings memory under pratyaksa and considers it as a direct perception by the mind (manasa-prathyaksa). Its validity cannot, he says, be treated as merely inferential. Memory is defined as the direct apprehensions of mind penetrating into past. The Theory of Validity: Pramanas give rise to valid knowledge of things "as they are in fact". Validity is genrally defined in terms of corespondence with objective reality. Thus pramana means yathartham; or what comprehends a thing as it is. Knowledge carries its own proof. The Theory of Saksi: Though Madhva accepts that validity is intrinsic to pramana, defined as yathartham, he does not rule out the possibility of error in experience. Under ideal conditions, error will have no chance. But the actual conditions of life being what they are, e rror cannot altogether be eliminated. Sense organs (being materially constituted), when vitiated by flaws, give rise to invalid knowledge or misapprehension of knowledge. Our experience shows that we do not become convinced of the validity of every kind of knowlege that comes to us through t he sensory and mental channels (vrtti-jnana) and which are also at times open to error. As knowledge, by itself, is jada (insentient) as a modification of the antahkarana and therefore incapable of self-revelation, the necessity of some other princi ple by which the knowledge itself and its validity could be intuited, should be admitted. Such a principle is saksi or svarupendriya of the "knowing Self", which being Caitanyarupa (conscious by nature) is capable of being both svaprakasaka and p araprakasaka. Both knowledge and its validity are, thus grasped by the saksi, in the ultimate analysis. The fact that some of our apprehensions are found to be correct and others erroneous could only be explained on the basis of the acceptance of saksi. Saksi (truth-determining principle) is equipped with an inherent capacity to know the true from the false. The verdict of saksi is flawless and must be regarded as true and valid for all time, because the perception and judgements of the saksi are of the essence of pure consciousness and therefore self-luminous and flawless in regard to their nature and content of validity. In other words, the validity of knowledge is, like the fact of knowledge, apprehended by saksi itself, directly. Madhva establishes t he infalliability of saksi in respect of its judjements of validity. If, however the direct experiences of the saksi are proved to have been illusory experiences, either by scripture or by some sort of transcendental perception, later it would simply mean that the saksi has been mistaken in its earlier judgment about their factual reality. Thus Madhva makes two points (1) that in all cases of knowledge, the fact of the knowledge is established not by the knowledge itself; but by the evidence of saksi. The reason for this is that all vrtti-jnana (mental and sensory) is material i.e., insent ient in sessence and has no power to reveal its own existece.; (2) that such vrtti-jnana can by no means, manifest its own "validity to itself". Therefore it necessitates a non-material form of knowledge to do this. Here is where saksi comes into picture, which is not something other than the Atman. saksi in Madhvas epistemology, is the name of the spiritual sense organ (svarupendriya) of the Self through which it intuits its experiences. The saksi, as an instrument of knowledge and validation is not s omething extraneous to the knowing self or pramata. The distinction of saksi into svarupa and indriya" (self and organ) is only one of reference and not of essence. Madhva thus postulates a new principle of truth-determination in epistemology in the form saksi, as the the ultimate criterion of truth which is infalliable and intrinsically valid. Its reasons are: (1) that it alone can be the ultimate guarantor of the validity of all pramanas, (2) that is the logical fulfilment and culmination of any really really self-complete theory of knowledge, and (3) that it is the only means of intuitive perception of certain supersensuous categories like Time, Space, the nature of self and its attributes, the mind and its modes, all knowledge of pleasures and pain, etc. The Concept of Visesas: This deals with the problem of the relation betaween substance and attribute. Madhva contributes the idea - the concept of visesas - to the treatment of this philosophical problem. He accepts a relation of colourful identity (savisesabheda) in respec t of coessential attributes and difference-cum-identity (bhedabheda) in the case of transient attributes. He made a stiking effort to rise above the dualism of substance and attribures and combine them into a homogeneous whole that admits, however, of logical, conceptual and linguistic distinction, wherever necessary, through the self differentiating capac ity of substances themselves, to be known as "visesas" or relative particulars. These visesas are ubiquitious and are not confined to material substances. They exist among sentients as well, including the Supreme Being. In sentient beings, these visesas, whether manifested or not, are identical with their substrata; while in regard to insentients, attributes which are co-eval would be identical with the substances (and distinguishable by visesas); while changing or impermanent ones would be different-cum-identical with their substances. The whole question has been very clearly expou nded by Jayatirtha: "visesa also is of two kinds as pertaining to sentient beings. Some of these are produced and some are eternal. Though the visesa as constituting the nature of a sentient person is eternal, it is spoken of as being produced by re ason of its becoming manifested at times and remaining unmanifested at other times. In the same way, visesas pertaining to insentient things are also two fold in their nature. The substance as such is the material cause of the visesas in an insentient thi ng. Though the visesas co-exist with the substance, as partaking of its nature, still a distinction can be made of them. In respect of insentient reals some visesas are produced as effects and some others last as long as the thing itself lasts. visesa is thus the peculiar characteristic or potency of things which makes description and talk of difference possible, where as a matter of fact only identity exists. Visesas should not, be mistaken for new or additional attributes of things; it is the power of things in themselves" which, through an underlying identity of essence, enables us to distinguish (i) a particular from its universal; (ii) a quality from its substance; (ii) motion or power or energy from things possessing them; (iv) the svaru pa from the svarupin and svarupatvam. Madhva holds the view that it would be impossible to establish any adequate theory of the relation between substance and attributes without invoking the aid of visesas, which are also called svarupavisesas in order to show that they are not "other than " the substance. There are three possible ways in which the relation of substance and attributes is generally conceived viz. (i) that they are "different" from each other (atyantabhinna), (ii) "absolutely identical with each other" (abhinna), (iii) "both identical and different" (bhinnabhinna). But, Madhva holds a fouth view of savisesabheda (identity based on visesa) as only accepted view while rejecting the above three. Difference between substance and attributes must be accepted not as being absolutely identical with the terms but "identical with a qualification" (savisesabheda). The function of visesas, in Madhvas philosophy, is not merely to distinguish, but to unify the part and the whole. Conclusion: The purpose visesa which is introduced in Madhvas system is to explain " the appearance of bheda where there is none". This concept distinguishes a quality from a substance and a part from the whole. Between a substance and its quality o r between a whole and its parts there is no difference. The difference appears on account of visesa. For example, one cannot perceive any difference between the cloth and its whitness, but he do percieve the visesa (particularity) of the cloth. If the re where difference between cloth and whiteness, then there would be difference between the difference and cloth, and between difference and whiteness, and so on "ad infinitum". Visesa of Madhva, characterises the eternal as well as non-eternal substance. In case of God, the principle of visesa is employed to reconcile his unity with plurality of his qualities and powers(saktis), and the plurality of His divine body, divine dress, divine abode, and the like. Definitions: Brahman: As already pointed out, Brahman, the only Independent Real is the highest ontological principle of Madhvas philosophy. Brahman is possessed of all adequate and unrestricted powers in regard to the cit and acit and who is all knowing. He is the One who c ontrols the cit and acit (sentient and insentient reals) which are of different nature from Him. The Independent Being must, necessarily, be infinite in Its attributes because an Independent Being Being cannot be finite and limited in any sense. (i) Brahman as a person: The Supreme Brahman is a Person who has a character of His own. The term personality as applied to Godhead denotes, according to Madhva, not merely the existence of self-consciousness so conceived, but also that the entire univer se is to be thought of as an experience and not as an abstract content. This Divine Personality is endowed with the faculties of cognition, conation and activity. God has His own body and limbs - a spiritual Form with its own instruments of knowledge and activity which is all one of knowledge and bliss. Madhva identifies Brahman with Visnu and adore Rama and Krsna as His incarnations but do not show any inclination for the worship of Gopala-Krsna and Radha. (ii) Attributes of Brahman: Madhvas conception of God emphasises two aspect of Divinity-the perfection of being (sarvagunapurnatvam) and freedom from all limitations (sarvadosagandhavidhuratvam). These two aspects cover and exhaust all that is great and good in the idea of God. He is Infinite (purna), of perfect bliss, the real of reals (satyasya satyam), eternal of eternal (nityo nityanam), the Sentient of all sentients (cetanascetananam), the source of all reality, consciousness and activi ty (sattapratitipravrttinimittam) in the finite. The attributes and actions of Brahman are the same as itself. They are not different. There is no mutual difference, either, among them. He is all pervasive and (a-tata) and all perceiving (matr). All the several attributes partake which the nature of Brahman are inseperable from Him and from one another. (iii) Cosmic activities of Brahman: The cosmic powers of the Supreme are eight in number: creation, preservation, dissolution, control, enlightenment, obscuration, bondage and release. Madhva holds that the Supreme Being itself (identified with Visnu) acts through the instrumentality of other gods (of limited jurisdiction over particular aspects of cosmic activities) to conduct the cosmic activities. It is Isvara Himself who directs pr operly, the various potencies of Nature and of the souls for production, growth, development, etc., which are always dependent on Him. The prakrti, purusas and their respective capacities, their very presence, cognizability and functioing, - all these are controlled by Isvara, eternally, through His eternal power. Just as non-eternal things are ordained by the eternal will of Isvara to be non-eternal, similarly, eternal substances too are ordained by His will, be eternal. The jivas, their karma, categorie s, kala, sruti, kriya etc., all these exist, function and are cognized only by His will and pleasure. They have existence in His despite. Hence, the very reality, existence, etc., of prakrti and other entities depend on His control. He enters into prakrti and energizes it to transform in various ways and assumes many forms to control such modifications. (iv) Manifestations of Brahaman: The Supreme Lord puts on a multiplicity of forms to evolve the univere through different stages. These forms, though innumerable, are nevertheless identical with one another, save for their numerical distinction. The fir st in the order of Divine manifestations is the quaternion of Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Sankarsana, popularly known as the (catur) vyuha, credited with redemptive, creative, sustaining and destructive functions. The Supreme further differentiates itself into ten (familiar avatars) or twelve, hundred, thousand and so on. These personal manifestation of the Lord are spoken of as suddha-srsti, in Pancaratra terminology. They are also designated as vyuhas in a general sense. Madhva accepts four kinds of manifestaions of God (though he does not use this nomenclature): 1. vyhas 2. avataras 3. Transcendent (para vasudeva) 4. Immanent In Madhvas view these various manifestations are absolutely on a par with one another. There is no gradation among them in respect of powers or potentialities. Madhva is vehemently opposed to the idea of making any invidious distinctions among these man ifestations of God or putting some on a higher pedestal than others. "There is no room for svagatabhededa in the Supreme" (neha nanasti kincana). It is the same Infinite in every manifestation. The avatars are on a different footing and are concernd wit h specific functions like bala karya, jnana karya etc. Their number exceed ten as commonly recognized. There are avatars like Hamsa, Datta and Hari, not included in the popular list of ten. To Madhva all avatars are of equal merit and status. There is no question of degree of fulness among them, no "partial" and "complete" avataras. He takes his uncompromising stand on the authority of the Upanisads and Pancaratric texts and rejects the commonly acceptd interpretation of the Bhagavata text: "krsnast u bhagavan svayam" as inappropriate on philosophical and syntactic grounds. He has thus no partiality or preference for any particular avatar of God and treats all of them as equal in rank, attributes and powers". Jivas (Atman): Souls are conceived in Madhvas system as finite centres of conscious experience, each with a unique essence of its own. The essence of individuality is that one finite centre of experience cannot possess, "as its own immediate" experience, the experienc e of another. It is this non-transferable immediacy of experience that distinguishes one self from another, inspite of their possessing certain similar characteristics. Each has a specific content of consciousness, reality and bliss and constitutes a foca lization which is nowhere exactly repeated in nature. The nature of the souls is to be one of unalloyed bliss and pure intelligence. It is essentially free from any kind of misery or pain; though subjected to a natural gradation of intelligence and bliss in cosmic hierarchy of selves and subject always to the Supreme, in bondage "and in release". The sense of misery, which is bondage, is external to their essence and is brought about by a "real" though "misplaced sense of independence of initiative and co nduct" The jivas are reflected counterparts (pratibimbamsa) of Brahman (Visnu). The bodies of the jivas, eternally present in Vaikuntha, the celestial abode of Visnu, are transcendental (aprakrta). Hence, they are called unconditioned-reflected-counterparts (nirupadhika-pratibimbamsa) of Visnu. The bodies of the jivas of the material world are matierial; therefore, they are called conditioned-reflected-counterparts (sopadhika-pratibimbamsa) of Visnu. (i) Plurality of selves: Madhva holds the doctrine of multiplicity of selves. The basis for this is the intrinsic diversity of their essences, which he shows to be "inevitable presupposition of the theory of karma". It is accepted that the inequalities o f individual equipment and endowment are regulated by ones pastlife and its karma. But, by its very nature, the karma theory would be powerless to explain the why of such inequalities, in the remotest past, without recourse to the hypothesis of an intrin sic peculiarity (anadi visesa) that is uncaused. It is this anadivisesa or svabhavabheda says Madhva, that distinguishes one soul from another. This is the decisive contribution which Madhva has made to the interpretation of the problem of life and its diversitis. He has thus gone beyond the principle of karma, unerringly, to the " svabhavabheda" ( intrinsic or essential differences in the nature of the beings). Similarly, the uniqueness of each individual experience, which forms the content of per sonality, is sufficient reason, according to Madhva, for the acceptanc of jiva-bahutva-vada (plurality of souls) and the distinctiveness of each individual. The theory of svarupabheda of souls elaborated by Madhva is, thus, the only solution of the problem of plurality of selves, their freedom and free will. (ii) Tripartite classification of souls: Madhvas doctrine of the Soul insists not only upon the distinctiveness of each soul but also upon an intrinsic gradation among them based on varying degrees of knowledge, power, and bliss. This is known as tarat amya or svarupataratamya, which comes out all the more clearly in the released state, where the souls realize their true status. Jiva-traividhya or tripartite classification of "unreleased souls" into (1) muktiyogya (salvable), (2) nitya-samsarin ( ever-transmigrating) and (3) tamoyogya (damnable) are the allied doctrines of svarupataratamya of souls. This theory of Madhva, is intended to justify and reconcile the presence of evil with divine perfection. Sri Madhva also speaks about the intrinsic differences existing among the "released" souls. Hiranyagarbha among the released (and in samsara too) occupying a privileged position as jivottama. His accepts innate distinction among (released) souls into dev a, rsi (pitr, pa) and naras. The devas are sarva-prakasa (fit to realize God as pervasive), the sages are antahprakasaand the rest bahihprakasa. The doctrine of intrinsic gradation among souls would follow as a matter of course, once the principle of their plurality is admitted. Many philosophical topics related to the law of karma, the problem of good and evil, behaviour of free-will displayed i n the case of individual jivas etc. can be solved only by the acceptance of the above theories of Sri Madhva. The recognition of special class of souls called nityasuris (as in the system of Ramanuja) and the class called nityasamsarins will be inexplicable without the acceptance of an intrinsic gradation of souls into ordinary and "elect" and so on. The hig her position of sesitva assigned to "Sri" in respect of nityasuris also points to a natural gradation among souls. Similarly the existence of nityamuktas like Visvaksena, Garuda, Ananta etc. who always remain free from samsara (accepted by the Visistadvat ins) and the high place assigned to Brahma among the gods (by Vedic and Puranic literature) are to be highlighted in this connection as their spititual excellence and superiority over other souls. Gods and men are not equal in their basic nature and powers, or in the innate tendencies for good or bad, which determine their future development. The doctrine of intrinsic gradation of souls is thus a resoned and reasonable hypothesis of human nature a nd destiny, suggested by the moral law and supported by reason, revelation and experience. Madhva holds that it can not be satisfactorily accounted for the presence and continuation of evil in a world created and ruled by a most perfect Being unless it is taken to be natural to some as goodness is to others. Without such a fundamental division of human nature, the disparities of life reflected in the seemingly unfair distribution of pleasure and pain and oportunities for moral growth are not satisactorily explained. The law of karma cannot satisfy the quest for an ultimate explanation of such bewildering enexplicabilities. It cannot explain why given two alternatives of good or evil, certain persons show a marked preference or tendency towards the one and others to the opposite. Moral worth, knowledge, works, experience, heredity, opportunities, culture - none of these explanatons of diversity solves the riddle pushed to its staring point; The final solution can only be found in the ingerent nature of bei ngs. Madhva and his commentators have cited many texts from the Vedic and post-Vedic literature ( from Gita 16.3, 5, 6, 18, 20; 8.2; Bhag. 6.14.5; Isa. Up 3 etc.), in support of the acceptance of the traividhya among jivas who are entangled within the samsara . An intrinsic divergence of nature and faith into sattvika, rajasa and tamasa which is rooted in the core of individual nature (dehinam svabhavaja) as stated in the Gita, is the ultimate basis of this theory according to Madhva. This theory is deve loped from the doctrine of trividha-sraddha in the Gita. The term sattvika, rajasa, and tamasa are applied to the jivas in their tripartite classification, according to Madhva, ha reference to their basic nature of Caitanya going beyond the play of prakrt i nad its gunas: "yo yac chraddhah sa eva sah" (Gita 17.3). This is clear from Madhvas comment on the above verse, where he interprets the term "sattvanurupa" as "cittanurupa". (iii) Self-luminosity of souls: The individual soul, as a sentient being, is admitted by Madhva to be self-luminious (svaprakasa). It is not merely of the form of knowledge (jnanasvarupa) but is a knower (jnatr). The conception of self as a conscio us personality is the same as it is in respect of God, expect for the fact that even the self-luminosity of the jiva is dependent on the Supreme, which makes bondage possible. Jagat: Madhva admits the reality of the world experience on the basis of perceptual, rational and scriptural grounds. The material universe, according to Madhva, is neither a transformation (parinama) of Brahman nor a production. It is merely an actualization of what is in the womb of matter and souls by the action of Brahman. The creation of the universe is a continuous process - a constant dependence of the world on the Supreme for all its determinations. Madhvas theory of the constitution of matter and the evolution of the world is based on the sankhya metaphysics of Upanisads, the Epics and Puranas. He quotes profusely from Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and other Puranas and other Puranas and from the v ast literature of the Pancaratras. He accepts the doctrine of evolution of matter (prakrti) as a follower of the Epic Sankhya. He accepts prakrti as eternal insentient primordial stuff dependent on Brahman on the authority of Upanisadic, Epic and Puranic Sankhya cosmology. It is directly and indirectly the material cause (upadhana karana) of the world. It is the direct material cause of time and the three qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas and indirectly of mahat, ahankara etc. It is both eternal and pervasive; but not unlimited. The three gunas are supposed to be differentiated at the begining of creation, in the ratio of 4:2:1. The evolution of other forms of matter takes place on account of the disturbance in their equipose which gives rise to the 24 principles commonly recognized, viz. mahat, ahamkara, buddhi, manas, ten sensory organs, five sense-objects and five great elements. Mahat is the first and finest evolute of matter and energy. Ahankara is the principle of individuation, buddhi that of discrimination, and manas of thoug ht. The principle of ahamkara is divided into three classes of vaikarika, taihjasa, and tamasa. From taijasa the ten sense organs are produced, and the five sense objects (visayas) and the elements are the products of tamasa-ahamkara. The tanmatras st and for qualitatively distinct and irreducible sense-qualities with a definite leaning towards their appropriate objects. These 24 evolutions of prakrti are the constituents of the microcosm and the macrocosm of the entire brahmanda. Madhva gives a proper reorientation to this theory of material evolution by linking it up with a systematic hierarchy of presiding deities fro m top to bottom. It is under the constant supervision and guidance of these "Abhimani-devatas" (or "Tattvabhimanins") that all material transformations and psychophysical functions are carried on. The Supreme Brahman itself ultimately behing all these act ivities and of each and every one of them. The 3 forms of matter, viz. sattva, rajas and tamas, are specially controlled by the 3 aspects of cetana prakrti, viz. Sri, Bhu and Durga. Involution (dissolution) takes place by the merger of the effects in their causes in the reverse order of evolution. This applies to the tattvabhimani-devas also, both in samsara and in release. Bondage (of jivas in samsara ): Madhva points out that the reason for the bondage of the souls is due to the divine will of the Supreme. Even though the bonds and impurities of the souls are not their essential nature (svarupa), the bonds of the souls are real. He gives a very purpos eful explanation of the rationale behind Gods putting the souls in bondage and through the necessary process of transmigration. Madhva calls his theory of the origin of bondage as "svabhava-ajnana vada" or the theory of the souls ignorance of their own true nature and of their dependence on the Supreme Brahman. Madhva contends that even though the jiva is a self-luminious being, still, it is not inconceivable that he should be subject to ignorance of his own true nature and of the nature of God and of h is true relation to Him, as he is a dependent and finite being. Since jivas, by definition, "dependent" and also endowed with aspects (sa-visesa) it is very reasonably contendented that while "some aspects" of the self (such as his existence) are "not o bscured" yet others like the manifestation or experience of its svarupananda (essential bliss) "remain obscured" in samsara. Thus bondage is of the nature of ignorance. As jivas nature is one of knowledge (jnanasvarupa), this ignorance which, in spite of his self-luminosity (svaprasatva) , is able to obscure a portion of that knowledge etc., of his own nature and of God cannot be treated as penetrating his very nat ure. Yet, if it is external to him, how does it obscure his svarupa, at least in some respects? To explain this knotty point, Madhva introduces the will of God or his inscrutable power (acintyadbhutasakti) which is also called by the name of maya (or His maya) of which the entanglement in prakrti is only next stage. Thus, according to Madhva, the obscuration of the soul leading to bondage is, in the last analysis, to referred to the inscrutable power of God, who actuates the latent power of prakrti known by various names such as maya and avidya in the sastras. Thoug h it is in the nature of maya to obscure, yet the intervention of the Lord is "necessary" for its functioning as a principle of obscuration, in so far as prakrti and its powers are insentient (jada) and therefore "asvatantra" (incapable of independent ini tiative). This obscuration of the essential nature of jivas cannot be ascribed due to the influence of kama, karma, etc. alone; for these are themselves the effects of earlier causes and thus are "dependent principles" and there is no reason why the soul should have succumbed to their attraction, surrendering his self-luminosity. In any case, they would not be an adequate explanation of the obscuration of the self, felt even in susupti and pralaya, when there is no operation of kama or karma, vasanas, etc . Hence, it is obivious that there is some other principle (over and above all these) that is preventing the self from realizing its true nature, in full, here and now. This is the principle of prakrti (jada) which presses down jivas from beginningless et ernity and obscures their natures at the will of the Lord and not by its own power, as already explained. Thus, Madhva finds the ultimate explanation of the bondage of souls in the power of prakrti controlled by the inscrutable and mysterious will of God. This is in complete accord with the views of great theistic scriptures like the Gita (7.14), about origin of bondage. Sadhana: Since the souls bondage is, in the last analysis, to be referred to the Divine will obscuring the intrinsic self-luminosity of jivas, its removal and the illumination of the souls is also ascribed to the Divine will, in the ultimate analysis, in Madhva s system. [but, Madhva on the basis of scritures (Brahma-sutra 2.3.33) ascribes jiva the title of "doer" or karta. He maintains that the human soul is the real agent in all its actions eventhogh he is not an absolutely independent agent. The jiva derives his abi lity to do things, metaphysically, from the creator. For, God merely "enables" the jiva to pursue a couse of action, not arbitrarily, but in relation to his former life and disires. He does not "interfere" with the jivas decision in any way. He sustains but never constrains (Gita 18.63). The jiva chooses out of his free will a particular line of action for good or for bad with sufficient foreknowledge of its moral worth and has himself to thank for the consequences. He cannot, therefore, blame anyone, le ast of all God, for the unpleasant consequences of his acts, should he have chosen wrongly.] The need for sadhanas follows from the very fact that the bondage of souls in samsara has been continuing from time immemorial. This bondage is continuing because of transmigration of souls. The aim of metaphysical inquiry is the attainment of release th rough Divine grace. Therefore one has naturally to think of the means of earning it. The sastras describe them as leading to one another, in the following order: freedom from worldy attachment (vairagya), devotion to God (bhakti), sravana(study), m anana (reflection), nididhyasana (meditation) and Saksatkara (direct realization). Vairagya is defined as the non-attachment to the body and bodily pleasures and cravings. This is the first step and primary requisite of a true aspirant. It constitutes the essence of spiritual life. Sravana is defined as the acquisition of the sense of the sacred texts under the instruciton of competent teachers. It dispels ignorance about the subject-matter (ajnananivrtti). Manana is the systematic employment of the canons of textual interpretation and logical examination with a view to arriving at a firm conviction that the final interpratation of the sastras thus arrived at is alone the correct and unimpeachable one. Manana removes doubts (samsaya) and misapprehension (viparyaya) and confirms the true import of the sastras (paroksatattvaniscaya). Nididhyasana or dhyana (continious meditation) leads to direct realization (darsana). Sravana and manana are thus subsidiary (angabhuta) nididhyasana which is the chief means (angi) if saksatkara. Role of guru: Madhva discusses the importance of a ideal guru and the importance of his grace in the final flowering of the spiritual personality of the aspirant (sadhaka). He emphasizes the point that instruction and guidance of a competent guru and h is grace (prasada) are absolutely necessary for sravana and manana to bear fruit. He further says that of the two viz., individual effort and the grace of the guru, the latter is to be deemed the more powerful factor and therefore indispensable for one s spiritual realization. The emphasis of guruprasada doesnot mean that individual effort and the deserts of the aspirant do not count. They are the foundations of ones spiritual progress; but guruprasada is the crowing point of this development. A seeker is allowed to change his guru if he secures another with a superior spiritual illumination, provided the latter is able and inclined to impart the full measure of grace and illumination that may be required for the self-realization of the discip le. Where both the gurus happen to be of equal merit and disposition to grant the full measure of their grace, qualifiying for illumination to the aspirant, the permission of the earlier guru shall have to be obtained before receiving instruction from the other one. Different Spiritual Disciplines: The most prominent forms of Spiritual discipline are those going by the names of karmamarga, jnanamarga and bhaktimarga. Karma yoga, according to Madhva is the enlightened spiritual activity (niskamam jnanapurvam karma) by all, which cannot be binding in its consequences. On the basis of Gita he establishes that it is neither pravrtti marga (faithful performance of the round of Vedic sacrifices and ritualistic rites prescribed by the Srutis and Smrtis with the expectation of their rewards in this or in the next world and the adherence to the duties of varna and asrama) nor nivrtti marga (abandonment of all karma) but= performance of karma in a spirit of devotion and vairagya is more important. Even this type of performing niskamakarma is not to be admitted as anything more than an accessory to spiritual realization. It is to be pursued for the purpose of acquiring mental purufication. The reason why karma cannot be treated as an independent means of release is that it is by nature, irrepressibly found to be enexhaustible by the enjoyment of fruits. The help of jnana is, therefore, indispensable to destroy or neutralize the latent effects of past karma (Gita 4.37). Such a power of destroying the accumulated load of past karma, or rendering it nugatory is ascribed to the actual vision (aparoksajnana ) of God, through dhyana (meditation). Madhva, therefore, regards enlightened activity (niskamakarma) merely as contributing to such knowledge through vairagya. Madhva is, thus, clear that disinterested activity carried on in a spirit of devotion t God is a powerful incentive to the acquisition of knowledge which alone is the highest means of realease. Karma and dhyana and others are just accessories to it. Conception of bhakti: Madhva has given a unique place to Divine grace in his system, in making it the ultimate cause of self-realization. To attain the grace of the Divine the sadhaka has to appease the Lord. This can only be done by bhakti as the deepes t attachment to the Lord, deep-rooted and based on a clear understanding of His greatness and majesty. Bhakti is, thus, the steady flow of deep attachment to God, impregnable by any amount of impediments and transcending the love of our own selves, our kith and kin, cherished belongings, etc. and fortified by a firm conviction of the transcendent majesty and greatness of God as the abde of all perfections and free from all blemish and by an unshakable conviction of the complete metaphysical dependence of everything else upon Him. When one is flooded by such an intensive and all-absorbing love he gets comp letely immersed in blissful contemplation of Him and is lost to all his surroundings. Such bhakti is necessary to manifest the natural and intrinsic relationship of pratibimbatva of the souls to God, which lies dormant in the state of bondage. Since the function of bhakti is to manifest the true relation of jiva to Brahman, it must naturally be properly informed about that true relation, which presupposes a right knowledge of the majesty and greatness of God as the one svatantra. Hence, bhakti has to be enriched by study, reflection and concentration. Bhakti is, thus, not a mere wave of sentimentalism or emotionalism, to Madhva. It is the outcome of patient study (sravana) and deep reflection. Madhva also demands a high degree of moral perfe ction from the true devotee of God. He affirms that there can be no ture devotion to God without a real sense of moral purity, sincerity of purpose and detachment to worldly pleasures. One cannot serve two masters. True devotion to God would impossible wi thout the cultivation of a natural distaste for the pleasures of the world. It is one of the constituent elements of true devotion. Acara or purity of life, in all respects is thus the only means of true devotion and knowledge. Devotion without such purit y will be a travesty. Complete control of the passions of the flesh, calmness of mind, impartiality of conduct and love of God are emphasized by Madhva as the prerequisites of devotion and knowledge. This positive approch to God in its final accomplishmen t i.e., love of God free from all traces of erotic manifestations, which dominate in certain forms of North Indian Vaisnavism like Jayadeva, Caitanya and Vallabha. Madhvas conception of bhakti avoids these emotional excesses and remains at its exalted in tellectual and spiritual level of firm philosophic devotion to the Supreme Lord of the universe who is to be worshipped with loving attachments as the bimba of all pratibimbas (jivas). But it is no on that account lacking in intensity of fervour and feeli ng. For Madhva has recognized in the clearest terms that bhakti is in essence an ineffable blending of the emotion and the intellect. He gives expression to the intensity of his love of God in its sublime and rapturous aspects in the opening and concludin g stanzas of his works. The possiblities of erotic devotion, as a means of contacting the Divine, are not unknown to him. In his view, kama-bhakti or erotic devotion is the special privilege of "apsarases and ought not to be practiced by others". Madhva speaks of 3 different types of devotees: (1) uttama bhaktas, (2) madhyama and (3) adhama, according to the nature and intensity of devotion characteristic of them. Taratamya in bhakti: Taratamya or gradational approcach in the practice of bhakti is a necessary element of the doctrine of bhakti as propounded by Madhva. The devotional homage to the gods and the sages in the spiritual hierarchy is not a matter of co urtesy. It is a "must". The devas occupy special position in the government of Gods universe as tattvabhimanis with special cosmic jurisdiction delegated to them. The role of these devas on the implementation of the sadhanas by human beings have been br ought in Madhvas commentary on the Upanisads and from the fading sources of Pancaratra and other literature. On the basis of these materials, he holds that devotion to God depends crucially on the grace of the devas who are His first greatest devotees. T hey are the highest order of jnanayogis and our direct superior, protectors, guides and gurus. We cannot think of God without their grace. It they who inspire our minds along right lines and turn them Godward and enable us to know and worship Him by their presiding activity over the sense organs, mind, buddhi etc. and bring our sadhanas to fruition. Stages of bhakti: Madhva distinguishes 3 stages of bhakti: (1) that a which "precedes" paroksajnana (meditate knowledge of the Deity), (2) one that "follows" it, and (3) a third that comes "after direct realization" (aparoksajnana) and wins the absolut e grace (atyarthaprasada) of the Lord. It this final stage of bhakti that fully manifests, by the grace of God, the true relationship that exists between the jiva and Brahman and completes the fulfilment of realization viz. the full manifestation and en joyment of the intrinsic bliss of ones own self and the majesty of the Lord. The last one is an end in itself, this is the sublime nature of bhakti. Thus in Madhvas system there are two distinct phases of bhakti, one operating at the sadhana or "prepara tory level" and the other sadhya or the fundamental level of moksa itself. Pleased with the initial bhakti of the jivas, the Lord bestows on them firm knowledge of His nature and attributes. He then reveals Himself. Thereafter He inspires them with still more intensive devotion and after showing Himself to the bhaktas He cuts the knot of their prakrtic bondage. In the released state also, the jivas remain under the Lords control imbued with unalloyed devotion to Him. Place of grace in redemption: According to Madhva, this knowledge of God is not a mere intellectual realizataion of the Deity. It is more a feeling of deep attraction and attachment arising from the knowledge of bimbapratibimbabhava between God and soul and sustained by sense of spontaneous attraction and affection flowingfrom it. Hence, in bhakti, there is the element of knowledge and attachment combined. In the last analysis, then, it is not pure knowledge that puts an end to the bondage of souls, but the grace of God in gracious acceptance of the souls "surrender". "It is Divine grace that plays the most decisive role in the final deliverance of the souls, according to Madhva". Not by karma, or jnana or even bhakti can remove the veil of ignorance w ithout the grace of the Lord withdrawing His obscuration of jiva. Aparoksa-jnana or God-Realization: In this final stage of sadhana the sadhaka receives a direct vision of the Supreme Being. The sadhaka is face to face with the object of his meditation and intuits the Divine Form, whichis his archetype (bimba). This is technically termed bimbaparoksa, which is the highest form of spiritual perception without which no one can hope to be released. However this final stage of vision of the Lord is different from vision of dhyana wherein the form of Brahman is built up i n the mind of the sadhaka. In dhyana one sees only the reflection of Brahman in the citta. By its presence in the reflection the Supreme Brahman confers the fruit of meditation on the aspirant. The meditation of this reflected form of Brahman, is like t he worship of an image. It leads (gradually) to the actual vision of the Lord, by His own grace. Aparoksa-jnana is something which by its nature, defies any more explict description. It is a flash-like revelation of the Supreme at the furtiom of a long and arduous process of sravana, manana, and nididhyasana, in the fulness of absolute self-su rrendering devotion to the Lord, as our bimba. Ultimately, it is He that must choose to reveal Himself, pleased by the hungering love of the soul. The pratibimba (soul) must turn in and see his bimba in himself. This is aparoksa. After aparoksa state: Aparoksa marks the preliminary stage of release. The journeys end is now fairly in sight; but not yet fully attained. The aparoksajnani, in Madhvas system corresponds to the "jivan-mukta" of other schools. But there is no destruct ion of avidya or prakrtic bondage yet. To the aparoksajnanin, the prospect of moksa is now "assured". But until the subtle body of sixteen kalas, known as "linga-sarira", is disintegrated, the jiva is not freed from prakrtic bondage. This comes at the end of the working out of a portion of his "prarabdha-karma" (that portion of the accumulated load of all past karma, which has begun already to go through) by "bhoga" (not necessarily pleasant). Madhva holds out also a very assuring prospect of the possible "upakarda" mitigation of the effects of some portion of "even" the prarabdha karma by the grace of God and release in its full sense speeded up. The term prarabdha karma includes obviously the good and the bad (punya and papa). Madhva introduces a su btler distinction in the former, from the point of view of aparoksa-jnanin, as ista (desirable) and anista (undesirable). The former is what conduces to deeper and deeper manifestations of innate bliss in moksa. The latter is whatever is likely to pro long the onset of complete release. Thus, there is no hard and fast rule that final release should take place at the destruction (by death) of that particular body in and through which aparoksa-jnana was attained. It depends on prarabdha-karma. If its effects have been workd out (in that b ody) there is no more delay; but if they have not been, then he must pass through some more lives to work them out. This is the position of sastras on the point. But since law of karma is not independent of the Lords will, Madhva interposes a saving cl ause in respect of Gods will, which nothing can limit. This may be called the "Vetoing power" (upamarda) of the Lord excercised in His own grace. Here, the "upamarda" or devitalizing of the effects of prarabdha karma refers to all evil karma and such of the punyakarma (or punya-prarabdha) that will delay or retard moksa, by producing agreeable dffects for enjoyment in future lives. But such punya, as will enhance the anandanubhava in moksa, is "credited to the account" of the aparoksa-jnanin. This emphasizes that nothing can possibly stand against Gods will. Though normally not interfering with the law of karma, there are occasionsin the career s of souls when He benevolently intervenes to scoth individual karma as such, when He feels that it has had its day. this again brings out vividly the place and importance of the concept of Grace in the Theism of Madhva. This is how Madhva understands the statement that God grants His grace to man and it is through grace alone that we can deserve to be saved from samsara. To get Gods grace upon oneself is greater than to know God intellectually. bhakti is emotional sublimation in God. When intellectual p erception melts into devotion we have bhakti. When such final stage of bhakti is reached, after aparoksa-vision, God intervenes to neutralize a portion of prarabdha even, and ushers in final moksa. Mukti: The doctorine of salvation is determined by the conception of of the nature of souls and God in any philosophical thought. Since Madhva establishes bhakti, not as a means to an end, but as an end itself, it follows that the relation between the individua l soul and the Supreme Being is not something that is snapped in release. For, this relation is not something that is extrinsic to the nature of the soul but something that is rooted in the very nature and being (svarupa) of the soul. Its destruction wo uld mean destruction of the jiva. It is a unique relation, a spiritual bond which is indestructible. There fore mukti is merely the shaking off what is extrinsic to ones nature and reposing in ones own intrinsic nature. The intrinsic spiritual relation between the human spirit and God is so dynamic in its magnetism that the attraction of the latter becomes more fully manifested in release than in samsara. Indeed, it breaks through and finds expression there in a thousand ways which are beyond our unders tanding and analysis from here. Madhva maintains that the realization of truth does not mean the abolition of the plurality of life or the peresonality of selves, but only the removal of the false sense of separateness and independence which is at the root of samsara. The attributes of the jiva is inviolable in the same sense as the atman itself is indestructible. Moksa would not be worth having, if atman does not survive as a self-luminious entity there. Therefore Madhva lays great stress on the survival of every individual personalit y, as such , in moksa (muktirhitva anyatha rupam svarupena vyavasthitih). In the positive aspect of the view of moksa, Madhva holds it as a state of supreme bliss. The first and foremost fact about moksa is that it is accepted, by common consent, as the highest "purusartha" of man. For this reason, it must be a state of unallo yed bliss; and this bliss must be "manifested" i.e., capable of being actually felt and enjoyed with a full consciousness of being "so enjoyed". This would natuarlly presuppose the survival of the one who is to enjoy the experiences of this blessed state. The supreme bliss in moksa is not a stagnant state. Madhva, says that there is scope for activity and full play of capabilities for everyone according to ones ablities. Some of the released may rest in the contemplation of their own blessedness, like Ad vaitic brahman. Some may contrast their present with their past and feel thankful for their deleverance. They may adore the majesty of God and sing His Praises or worship Him in a thousand ways. Some may offer sacrifices, if they wish to - the only differ ence being that "nothing is obligatory there". There is no "prescribed round of activites" or code of conduct in moksa, which means there is unlimited scope for spontaneous, creative work of every kind. Ananda taratamya in moksa: or a hierarchic gradation in the nature, range, quality, intensity etc., of svarupa-ananda or innate bliss enjoyed by the released souls, is a logical deduction from the theory of svarupa-bheda of souls accepted by Madhva. Si nce moksa is only the discovery of ones selfhood and experiencing what is there in it (muktirhitva.......), there is no possibility of exchanging ones experience with anothers or its transference to another, whether wholly or in part. Each released sou l rests fully satisfied (purna-trpta) in the enjoyment of "his own svarupa-ananda". Madhva uses the argument based on the obvious disparity in the sadhanas of different orders of beings to reinforce the docrine of anandataratamya in moksa. There is natural gradation among the released souls as also disparity in their sadhanas. The difference in the nature and quality of sadhanas must necessarily have a relationto the result. The existence of such a gradation in moksa is established by reas on and revelation. Just as vessels of different sizes, the rivers and the Ocean are "full" of water according to their respective capacities, even so, in respect of the jivas, from ordinary human beings to Brahmadeva, their fulness of bliss attained throu gh sadhanas is to be understood with reference to their varying (intrinsic) capacities The sadhanas practiced by them such as bhakti, jnana etc., are nothing more than an expression of their intrinsic potentialities, which are the core of their being - go ing back to their beginningless eternity. Those with limited capacities are satisfied with limited bliss and those with comparatively greater capacities reach fulfilment with still more. But each ones satisfaction would be "full" and "complete" in itself - having reached its saturation point. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted March 22, 2004 What is advaita vedAnta? Literally, "non-dualism," advaita is the name of the oldest extant school of vedAnta. Advaita bases itself upon the Upanishads, the Brahma-sutras and the Bhagavad-gita. Advaita asserts that the real, essential identity of the jIva, the individual self, is nothing other than brahman Itself. The teaching follows from upanishadic statements (mahAvAkyas) like tat tvam asi and aham brahmAsmi. It is in this cardinal doctrine that Advaita differs from all other schools of vedAnta. The main tenets of Advaita are detailed in commentaries written by SankarAcArya, the famous philosopher who lived in the 7th - 8th centuries A.D. Read http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp for a website dedicated to Advaita vedAnta. Who is the founder of Advaita? There is no single founder of Advaita Since the philosophy of Advaita is rooted in the Upanishads, which are part of the eternal vedas, the advaita tradition does not trace itself to a historical personality. However, SankarAcArya is venerated as the most important teacher of advaita vedAnta, as he wrote commentaries to the basic scriptural texts, and placed the living advaita tradition on a firm footing. Before SankarAcArya's time, the tradition was passed down mainly through oral instruction. Even today, the traditional way to learn advaita is to sit at the feet of an accomplished guru. Mere reading of the texts is insufficient. More details about the guru paramparA of advaita are at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/advaita-parampara.html. There is a description of pre-Sankaran vedAnta at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html. What are the basic tenets of advaita? The essential identity of the Atman and brahman is the most important tenet of advaita. Brahman is the substratum on which all phenomena are experienced, and also the antaryAmin, the One Lord who dwells in all beings. The innermost Atman, the real Self, is the same as this antaryAmin, and identical to brahman. Liberation (moksha) consists in realizing this identity, not just as a matter of literal or intellectual understanding, but as something that is to be grasped by the individual in his/her own personal experience. Yogic practices help in the road towards such realization, because they help the seeker in practising control of the senses, and in directing the antahkaraNa (the 'internal organ' - consisting of the mind, intellect, awareness and I-ness) inwards. The practice of ashTAnga-yoga is recommended to seekers by teachers of advaita. The seeker has to be equipped with requisite qualifications - qualities such as patience, forbearance, ability to focus one's concentration in an intense manner, an ability to discriminate between the Real and the non-Real, dispassion, and a desire for liberation. However, it is important to remember that moksha is not a result of mere ritualistic practice. Being identical to brahman, moksha always exists. Ritualistic practices help only to the extent of achieving citta-Suddhi, and in developing the above-mentioned qualities. Advaita is a non-dual teaching. When asked why duality is perceived in this world, advaita has a multi-pronged answer to the question. The world of multiplicity can be explained as due to mAyA, the power of creation wielded by the Creator, who is therefore also called the mAyin. From the point of view of the individual, the perception of duality/multiplicity is attributed to avidyA (ignorance) due to which the unity of brahman is not known, and multiplicity is seen instead. This is akin to the false perception of a snake in a rope. When the rope is known, the snake vanishes. Similarly, on brahman-realization, the world of multiplicity vanishes. This does not mean that the individual's ignorance creates the external world. However, the perception of multiplicity in the world, instead of the One brahman, is due to avidyA, i.e. ignorance. When avidyA is removed, the individual knows his own Self (Atman) to be brahman, so that there is no more world and paradoxically, no more individual. Here, the Self alone IS. Removal of avidyA is synonymous with brahman-realization, i.e. moksha. Read http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/ad-phil.html for a more detailed description. What is the relationship between advaita and buddhism? Is advaita a mere copy of buddhism? No, advaita is not a mere copy of buddhism. For a few centuries now, advaita has been criticized as being "pracanna bauddham" - buddhism in disguise. This criticism stems mainly from some of the vaishNava schools of vedAnta, but it is misplaced. Firstly, there is no one "buddhism" and for the criticism to be valid, it must be specified which school of buddhism is being referred to. SankarAcArya expends a lot of effort criticizing many of the philosophical positions taken by various schools of buddhism in his commentaries. Among modern academic scholars, advaita vedAnta is most often compared with the madhyamaka and yogAcAra schools of buddhism. This has been inspired mainly by the fact that the mANDUkya kArikAs, written by gauDapAda, Sankara's paramaguru, exhibit a great familiarity with this school of buddhism. However, if it is held that advaita vedAnta is essentially the same as madhyamaka buddhism, it must be pointed out that such a view stems from a misunderstanding of the important tenets of both advaita vedAnta and madhyamaka buddhism. There are many key details in which advaita differs from the madhyamaka school of buddhism. As for yogAcAra, the points of similarity arise from the fact that both advaita vedAnta and yogAcAra buddhism have a place for yogic practice, as do other schools of Indian philosophy. For further details, consult http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/gaudapada.html. Why is advaita sometimes referred to as mAyAvAda? The word mAyAvAda serves many purposes. Since advaita upholds the identity of the individual Atman with brahman, a doubt naturally arises about the origin of the variegated universe. The appearance of difference in the universe is attributed to mAyA. In popular parlance, mAyA means illusion, and a magician or a juggler is called a mAyAvI. Within advaita, mAyA has a technical significance as the creative power (Sakti) of brahman, which also serves to occlude, due to which the universe is perceived to be full of difference, and the unity of brahman is not known. See fuller details in response to Q. 3 above. Some vaishNava schools use the word mAyAvAda in a derogatory sense. However, this criticism interprets mAyA solely as illusion and criticizes advaita for dismissing the world as an illusion that is nothing more than a dream. Such a criticism neglects the philosophical subtlety of the concept of mAyA in advaita. Isn't advaita falsified by everyday experience? No. In fact, advaita acknowledges that everyday experience leads one to infer plurality, but it maintains emphatically that the transcendental experience of brahmAnubhava sublates the ordinary everyday experience that is based on perception through one's senses. The tradition holds that it is not correct to make one's conclusions on issues of metaphysics based only on normal everyday experience. All schools of vedAnta rely on scripture, i.e. the Vedas, as a valid source of knowledge. As advaita vedAnta is learnt only from the upanishads, it is not falsified by everyday experience. On the other hand, the knowledge of brahman's identity sublates normal perception. It is also pointed out there would be no need for scripture if one's conclusions were based only on everyday experience. Read more at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/creation.html. An account of the post-Sankaran development in thinking about the One brahman vis-a-vis the manifold universe can be found at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/one-many.html. What is the concept of scripture, according to advaita? Advaita's concept of scripture is very similar to that of the pUrva mImAm.sA school, but with two important exceptions. Thus, The vedas, arranged into the Rk, yajus, sAma and atharva vedas are valid scripture. The vedas are considered apaurusheya (unauthored), and eternally valid texts. They constitute Sruti, i.e. the "heard" revelation. A number of other texts, admittedly of human authorship, are also given scriptural status, but they are subordinate to the vedas in their authority, and are valid where they do not conflict with vedic precepts. These other texts are called smRti, i.e. remembered tradition. Each veda has a karmakANDa, consisting of mantras and ritual injunctions (vidhis) and a jnAnakANDa, consisting of the upanishads and brAhmaNas. The first exception that advaita takes to pUrva mImAmsA is in the role of the jnAnakANDa. The upanishads are not merely arthavAda, as maintained by the pUrva mImAmsA schools. The upanishads teach the knowledge of brahman, and are not meant to eulogize the fruits of ritual action. A second, more subtle philosophical difference with pUrva mImAm.sA is that advaita vedAnta accepts that brahman is the source of the veda, in the same way as brahman is the source of the entire universe. This acceptance of a "source" of the veda would not be acceptable to the true pUrva mImAm.sakas who follow the thought of kumArila bhaTTa or prabhAkara. The upanishads, which constitute the jnAnakANDa of the vedas, are therefore called Sruti prasthAna, and form one of the three sources of advaita vedAnta. The most important smRti prasthAna of advaita tradition is the bhagavad-gItA, which is perhaps the best known Indian religious text in modern times. The third text is the collection of brahmasUtras, by the sage bAdarAyaNa. The brahmasUtras establish the logical principles of orthodox vedAntic interpretation of Sruti, and are therefore called the nyAya prasthAna. The truth of advaita vedAnta is therefore said to be established on the tripartite foundation (prasthAna trayI)of revealed scripture (Sruti), remembered tradition (smRti) and logic (nyAya). How does worship by advaitins differ from worship in other schools of vedAnta? Very markedly. The orthoprax advaita tradition is closely allied to the smArta tradition, which follows the system of pancAyatana pUjA, where vishNu, Siva, Sakti, gaNapati and sUrya are worshipped as forms of saguNa brahman. In some sources, the concept of the pancAyatana is replaced by the notion of shaNmata, which adds skanda to the above set of five deities. The worship is done both on a daily basis and on specific festival occasions. Questions of who is superior, vishNu or Siva, which are very popular among many groups of Hindus, are not relished by advaitins. In the words of Sri Chandrasekhara Bharati (1892 - 1954), the accomplished jIvanmukta, "you cannot see the feet of the Lord, why do you waste your time debating about the nature of His face?" That said, vishNu and Siva, the Great Gods of Hinduism, are both very important within the advaita tradition. The sannyAsIs of the advaita order always sign their correspondence with the words "iti nArAyaNasmaraNam ". In worship, advaitins do not insist on exclusive worship of one devatA alone. As brahman is essentially attribute-less (nirguNa), all attributes (guNas) equally belong to It, within empirical reality. The particular form that the devotee prefers to worship is called the ishTa-devatA. The ishTa-devatAs worshipped by advaitins include vishNu as kRshNa, the jagadguru, and as rAma, Siva as dakshiNAmUrti, the guru who teaches in silence, and as candramaulISvara, and the Mother Goddess as pArvatI, lakshmI and sarasvatI. Especially popular are the representations of vishNu as a sAlagrAma, Siva as a linga, and Sakti as the SrI-yantra. gaNapati is always worshipped at the beginning of any human endeavor, including the pUjA of other Gods. The daily sandhyAvandana ritual is addressed to sUrya. The sannyAsis of the advaita sampradAya recite both the vishNu sahasranAmam and the SatarudrIya portion of the yajurveda as part of their daily worship. In addition, "hybrid" forms of the Deities, such as hari-hara or Sankara-nArAyaNa and ardhanArISvara are also worshipped. There is another significant distinction between worship in the advaita tradition and other kinds of Hindu worship. advaita insists that the distinction between the worshipper and God, the object of worship, is ultimately transcended, and that the act of worship itself points to this identity. This should not be confused with the doctrine of dualistic Saiva siddhAnta schools, which call for a ritual identification of the worshipper with Siva, for the duration of the worship. The identity of Atman and Brahman is a matter of absolute truth, not just a temporary ritual identification. Most vaishNava schools of vedAnta hold that the distinction between the worshipper and God, the object of worship, is eternally maintained. What is the advaita concept of liberation? In the advaita analysis, human life and behavior is explained on the basis of the theory of karma, which sets the cycle of rebirths into motion. All actions, good or bad, create their own karmic residues called vAsanas , which exhibit their results over a period of time. The karma which has already started taking fruit is called prArabdha karma. This is the karma that is responsible for the current birth. The accumulated karma which is yet to take fruit is called sancita karma. As long as the cycle of rebirths continues, more karma will be done in the future, and this is called Agamin karma. Liberation (moksha) is the way out of this endless cycle. In advaita, moksha is synonymous with brahman. Sruti says "brahmavit brahmaiva bhavati" - He who knows brahman becomes brahman Itself. In the advaita understanding of this statement, the "becoming" is only metaphorical. It is not as if something that was not brahman suddenly becomes brahman. Rather, "knowing brahman" means a removal of the ignorance about one's own essential nature as brahman. Thus, to "know brahman" is to "be brahman". The one who has realized the identity of his own Atman with the brahman is the jIvanmukta, one who is liberated even while embodied. Such realization should not and cannot just be a literal understanding of upanishadic mahAvAkyas. The jIvanmukta is one who has experienced the truth of the identity himself. Thus, moksha can only indirectly be called a result of ritual action (karma mArga) or of devotional service (bhakti mArga ). These paths lead along the way, and constitute the "how" but not the "why" of liberation. In fact, moksha is not a result of anything, for it always exists. All that is required is the removal of ignorance. For this reason, the way of advaita vedAnta is also called the path of knowledge (jnAna-mArga). What is the significance of jIvanmukti? Advaita holds that realization of brahman is possible on this earth itself. The highly evolved seeker, who approaches vedAntic study with a pure mind, and a strong tendency of mumukshutva, is fit to really experience brahman. One who has actually realized brahman, is a jIvanmukta - he is liberated while still living. He continues to live in a material body, because of the momentum of the prArabha karma that has already started taking fruit. But he accumulates no further karma, because all Agamin karma and sancita karma are "burnt" in the knowledge of brahmajnAna. The body eventually dies, and the jIvanmukta is said to have attained videhamukti. In accordance with the Sruti, "na sa punarAvartate," he does not enter into the cycle of rebirths any more. Who are the leading writers in the advaita tradition? The earliest advaitins whose writings are available today are gauDapAda (6th or 7th cent. CE - mANDUKya kArikas) and SankarAcArya (8th cent. CE - brahmasUtra bhAshyas, bhagavadgItA bhAshya and various upanishad bhAshyas ). Four disciples of SankarAcArya are known in the tradition - sureSvara, padmapAda, toTaka and hastAmalaka. An elder contemporary of SankarAcArya was maNDana miSra, who is traditionally identified with sureSvara. In the post-Sankaran period, some of the leading authors are vAcaspati miSra (9th cent. CE), sarvajnAtman (9th - 10th cent. CE), prakASAtman (10th cent. CE), SrIharsha (12th cent. CE), citsukha (13th cent. CE), Anandagiri, bhAratI tIrtha, vidyAraNya (13th - 14th cent. CE), madhusUdana sarasvatI, nRsimhASrama, appayya dIkshita (16th cent. CE), sadASiva brahmendra and upanishad brahmendra (17th - 18th cent. CE), are notable figures in the tradition. In the 20th century, candraSekhara bhAratI and saccidAnandendra sarasvatI have written scholarly treatises on advaita vedAnta. Other than these, there have been many other equally illustrious scholars who have not written texts, but who have taught their disciples through oral instruction. These post-Sankaran authors are discussed at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/advaita.html#philosophers. What are the advaita institutions of the present day? All present day advaitins trace their guru-parampara through the four disciples of SrI SankarAcArya. These disciples were the first leaders of the four AmnAya maThas (monasteries) at Puri (Govardhan Math, Puri 752 001, Orissa) Sringeri (Sri Sarada Peetham, Sringeri 577 139, Karnataka), Dvaraka (Dvaraka Peeth, Dvaraka 361 335, Gujarat ) and Badrinath (Sri Sankaracharya Math, Joshimath, Badri 246 443, Uttar Pradesh). All four maThas are functioning today. Other well-known maThas are based in Kaladi, Bangalore, Kudali, Ujjain, Rameswaram, Sivaganga, Kolhapur, Kancipuram (Srimatham Samsthanam No. 1, Salai Street, Kanchipuram 631 502, Tamil Nadu), Varanasi, Bodhgaya and other holy places in India. And there are a number of other institutions in India that are also active in disseminating advaita philosophy and religion, like the various daSanAmI akhADas all over north India, Kankhal Asrama in Hardwar and its branches, the Advaita Asrama in Pune, etc. In addition to these traditional advaita lineages, various other Indian religious traditions, especially those relating to kuNDalinI yoga, siddha yoga, various tAntric lineages and numerous Saiva and SAkta traditions trace some connection to the guru-paramparA of SankarAcArya and his successors. The ramaNASramam (Tiruvannamalai 606 603, Tamil Nadu) is another important center, asscociated with the memory of SrI ramaNa mahaRshi, a celebrated sage of the 20th century. In recent times, a large number of institutions have been set up all over the world by teachers like Swami Vivekananda, Paramahamsa Yogananda, Swami Sivananda and others. These institutions also draw inspiration from advaita. See http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/ad-today.html, and the answer to question 13 below, for further details. Online Resources: Mailing list for advaita vedAnta - There is a mailing list, called ADVAITA-L, for discussing advaita vedAnta. You can to this list is to go to the list archives page (http://lists.advaita-vedanta.org/archives/advaita-l.html), and to follow the appropriate link. Else, send an email to listserv@lists.advaita-vedanta.org, with a blank subject line and the following message: SUBSCRIBE ADVAITA-L Your_full_name Example: SUBSCRIBE ADVAITA-L Devadatta Once you , you will get a welcome message explaining how to set the other mailing options. If you have any questions about the mailing list, please send an email to listmaster@advaita-vedanta.org, which reaches the list administrators, Sri Ravisankar Mayavaram, Sri Jaldhar Vyas and Sri Vaidya Sundaram. This forum is operated with minimal moderation, in the hope that the members will use self moderation and discuss advaita vedAnta with reverence. Archives of the mailing list are available in web browsable form and can be read from http://lists.advaita-vedanta.org/archives/advaita-l.html. Movie on Adi SankarAcArya - A Sanskrit movie on the life of SankarAcArya was made in 1984, by G. V. Iyer. This was the first Sanskrit language movie ever made, and is available from the National Film Development Corporation (NFDC) of India. Details about the movie are available at http://www.nfdcindia.com/mipcom2.html (NFDC website). Information about obtaining a copy of the movie can be found at the NFDC site, at http://www.nfdcindia.com/international.html. Also read a discussion about this movie, at the archives of the advaita mailing list. Image of Adi SankarAcArya - A clay image of Adi SankarAcArya can be obtained online from JBL Statues (http://jblstatue.com/pages/sankaracharya.html). Websites related to advaita vedAnta and vedAntins - The number of online resources relating to contemporary masters from the ancient advaita tradition and the modern neo-vedAnta schools is growing rapidly. Here is a collection of links you might be interested in visiting: http://www.erols.com/ramakris/sringeri/sringeri.html - The Sringeri maTha, currently headed by Swami Bharati Tirtha, is the first advaita monastery, established by Adi Sankara. The Sringeri lineage is directly or indirectly the source of most contemporary institutions associated with advaita vedAnta. In addition, there is now an official extension of the Sringeri Peetham in the USA, called the Sringeri Vidya Bharati Foundation (http://www.asanet.com/sringeri). The Peetham's bimonthly magazine, titled Tattvaloka, can also be obtained online in English and Italian versions (http://www.vidya.org/tattvaloka). http://www.kamakoti.org/ - The Kancipuram maTha, under Swami Jayendra Sarasvati. http://www.chitrapurmath.org/about.htm - The Chitrapur maTha of one group of sArasvata brAhmaNas, under Swami Sadyojata Sankarasrama. This maTha maintains its centuries old traditional links with the Sringeri maTha. http://www.koviloor-madalayam.org/ - The Koviloor maTha, a dynamic vedAnta maTha of the Nagarattar community, under Srilasri Nachiappa Gnanadesikan. Since its inception, this maTha has maintained traditional links with Sringeri maTha. This maTha is also one of the few institutions that preserve an old tradition of teaching advaita vedAnta through Tamil texts (including original texts and translations from Sanskrit). http://www.culturalindia.com/karyalaya.htm - Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya, founded by Swami Saccidanandendra Sarasvati. http://www.vedanta.org/ - Vedanta Society of Southern California, in the lineage of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda. Also see http://www.ramakrishna.org/ and http://www.vivekananda.org/. http://www.rsl.ukans.edu/~pkanagar/divineThe Divine Life Society, Rishikesh, established by Swami Sivananda, now headed by Swami Chidananda. http://www.sivananda.org/- Yoga Vedanta Center, established by Swami Vishnudevananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda. http://www.chinmaya.org/ - Chinmaya Mission, established by Swami Chinmayananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda and Tapovan Maharaj. http://www.arshavidya.org/- Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, established by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Some very good lectures are available online, at http://www.yogamalika.org/reading-room.htm, maintained by Swami Paramarthananda. http://www.yogananda-srf.org/ - Self Realization Fellowship, established by Swami Paramahamsa Yogananda, maintains traditional links with the Puri and Bodhgaya maThas. http://www.ramana-maharshi.org/ - About Sri Ramana Maharishi. http://www.satramana.org/- Master Nome, at Society for Abidance in Truth, Santa Cruz, California. http://www.vidya.org/ - Vidya Bharata, founded by Raphael, Asram Vidya Order, Italy. http://www.geocities.com/~omkara - Swami Omkarananda Ashram, Rishikesh, established by Swami Omkarananda. http://www.ayurvedahc.com/ashlinge.htm - A Siddha Mahayoga lineage associated with SrI bhAratI kRshNa tIrtha of the Puri maTha. http://ddi.digital.net/~egodust - Egodust's Pathways to Metaphysics page. http://www.geocities.com/RodeoDrive/1415/veda.html - An introduction to Vedanta, by Giridhar Madras. OnlineBookstores/Publishers: http://www.tamilcinema.com/samata/page1.html - Samata Books, Madras: A comprehensive collection of SrI SankarAcArya's works may be obtained from here. Alternatively, see http://www.nesmabooksindia.com/samata.htm. http://www.mlbd.com/ - Motilal Banarsidass, a premier Indian publishing house. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/indnet-publishers.html - A collection of Indological publishers and bookshops, including Indian resources like Chetana (Mumbai), DK Agencies (New Delhi), Vedamsbooks (New Delhi) and The India Club. http://www.vedanta.com/ - Online catalog of the Vedanta Press, Los Angeles. http://www.sunypress.edu/- The State University of New York Press. http://www.bookshop.co.uk/- The Internet Bookshop, UK. http://www.amazon.com/ - Amazon Books, largest online booksellers. http://www.demon.co.uk/keganpaul - Kegan Paul International, London, UK. http://www.leggett.co.uk/- Trevor Leggett's books. Related sites: http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm - A well designed site on the six darSanas of Indian Philosophy. http://vedavid.org/port.html - Collection of Vedic texts, a highly interesting graduate dissertation, presented online. ftp://jaguar.cs.utah.edu/private/sanskrit/sanskrit.html - General things of interest for Sanskrit lovers. If you wish to add any site to this list, please inform the author of this FAQ at vsundaresan@hotmail.com. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted April 7, 2004 Frequently Asked Questions: What is (a) Gaudiya? The term 'GauDiiya' means 'of GauDa-deSa', GauDa-deSa being an old name for West Bengal. Gaudiya Vaishnavism originated in what is now West Bengal, and is still very widely practiced there and in what is now Bangladesh. Who is the founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism? Gaudiya Vaishnavism as a widespread movement of bhakti or devotion was begun by Sri Chaitanya Mahaaprabhu, who appeared in West Bengal in the late 15th century. He is accepted by all Gaudiya Vaishnavas as an incarnation of Krishna but in the "hidden" role of a devotee of Krishna, and this is supported by references from Srimad-Bhaagavatam, the Chaitanya Upanishad of the Atharva Veda, the Mahaabhaarata, and other scriptures. Gaudiya Vaishnavism was certainly influenced by many earlier personalities, such as Maadhavendra Puri (who also represents the connection of Gaudiya Vaishnavism to the Maadhva sampradaya coming from Srimad Ananda Tiirtha or MadhvAcharya) and Jayadeva Goswami, Chandiidaasa and Vidyaapati. Though Sri Chaitanya Mahaaprabhu was a great scholar, He left only 8 verses, called the shikshaashhTakam. His followers, most notably the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan, wrote numerous books setting down the tenets and rituals of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with support from scripture. Who are some other prominent figures in Gaudiya Vaishnavism? The Six Goswamis of Vrindavan were mostly contemporaries of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Rupa Goswami and Sanatana Goswami, along with the younger Jiva Goswami, wrote many works on bhakti and Gaudiya philosophy, supporting their work extensively with quotations from smriti and shruti. Narottama dasa Thakura came a bit later. Narottam dasa Thakura studied under Jiva Goswami, and was responsible for spreading bhakti throughout Orissa and Bengal. Fifty years after the disappearance of Shri Chaitanya, Narottam also organized annual festivals in Bengal, which served to keep the Gaudiya philosophy unified. Krishnadas Kaviraja Goswami is best known for his biography of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Sri Chaitanya Charitaamrita. In the 17th century, Srila Baladeva VidyaabhuushaNa was known for his Govinda-bhaashya commentary on BaadaraayaNa's Brahma-Suutra a.k.a Vedaanta-suutra. He also wrote commentaries on 10 major Upanishads, which have been lost with the exception of his commentary on Iishopanishad. Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura appeared in the 19th century and was responsible for a large revival of the Gaudiya movement, which had fallen into disrepute at this time. The Thakura's son, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, was a lifelong brahmachaarin (celibate bachelor) and continued spreading the Gaudiya movement throughout India. He founded the Gaudiya Matha society, and also sent disciples to preach in England. Srila A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a disciple of Srila Bhaktisiddhanta, came to New York in 1965 and founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known popularly as the Hare Krishna movement. He departed this world in 1977. What is the Gaudiya understanding of Vedanta? Although Gaudiya Vaishnavism as a widespread movement really began in the late 15th century, a commentary on Vedaanta-suutra was not written until the 18th century. Srila Baladeva VidyaabhuushaNa wrote the Govinda-bhaashya commentary at that time. In the opinion of Sri Chaitanya Mahaaprabhu, and as cited in various scriptures such as the GaruDa PuraaNa, the Sriimad-Bhaagavatam is considered to be the natural commentary on Vedanta. Vedanta describes the Absolute Truth as well as the living entities, and the Bhaagavatam elaborates on Sri Krishna, the speaker of Bhagavad-giitaa, as the Supreme Brahman and Absolute Truth. Thus the followers of Sri Chaitanya have always held the Bhaagavatam in highest esteem as a scriptural authority. For more information, see "What is the Gaudiya concept of scripture?" The Gaudiya understanding of Vedanta, as first explained by Sri Chaitanya in His teachings and later set down by Sri Baladeva VidyabhuushaNa in his Govinda-bhaashya commentary, is called achintya-bhedaabheda-tattva, or inconceivable simultaneous oneness and difference. This doctrine teaches that the living entity or jiivaatmaa and the Supreme Person Sri Krishna or Vishnu are one in quality but different in quantity. Krishna is the infinite Supreme Spirit (Brahman) and the minute jiiva is also spirit or brahman, but the two are eternally distinct. One analogy is of sparks within a fire which are hot like the fire but also have a separate identity. Furthermore, when the tiny spark leaves the fire and lands on damp ground, its blazing nature may be extinguished. This is similar to the spiritual jiiva coming into contact with matter; the effulgent spiritual nature of the jiiva is covered to one degree or another by the material energy or maayaa. This relationship of simultaneous oneness and difference is called achintya or inconceivable not because it is undescribable (which would be anirvachaniiya) but because it is not possible to fully understand the nature of the infinite Absolute Truth. The concept will simply not fit into one's head, but one can nonetheless approach the concept. For example, we can understand that the ocean contains approximately so many quadrillion tons of water. We can approach the understanding of the ocean's volume in this way but we cannot really fit it into our head as easily as we can with a smaller quantity of water, say a small pond or even a lake. But by analyzing a single drop of ocean water, we can understand the qualities that are present in the ocean. What are the tenets of Gaudiya Vaishnavism? It would be difficult to describe Gaudiya Vaishnavism without describing the basics of Brahman realization. These tenets are common to all Vedaanta-based philosophies: I am not this body. I am an eternal, spiritual being I do not belong in the cycle of repeated birth and death in this temporary world. It is part of my nature to seek aananda or bliss. Specific to mainstream Vaishnava philosophies: My identity as an individual spiritual being is different from the Supreme Being. That Supreme Being is known as Vishnu or Krishna. The forms of Vishnu or Krishna are eternal, spiritual forms full of unlimited opulence. There is no truth superior to the Supreme Lord Shri Krishna, the speaker of Bhagavad-gita. Some of the essential points particular to Gaudiya Vaishnavism: Sri Krishna, the son of Nanda Maharaaja, is the worshipable Supreme Personality of Godhead. Krishna's eternal abode is Vrindaavana. The best worship of Sri Krishna is that which is performed by the cowherd damsels of Vrindaavana (the gopiis). Srimad-Bhaagavatam is a spotless authority for these and other truths. Ecstatic love for Krishna (premaa) is the ultimate goal of life. The best means of attaining the perfection of Krishna-premaa is by chanting the mahaa-mantra: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Raama Hare Raama Raama Raama Hare Hare Special emphasis is given to congregational chanting, or sankiirtana. Sankiirtana is often sung to accompaniment of instruments such as the mridangam (a two-headed drum) and karatala-s (hand cymbals). Individual chanting is usually done on a japa-maalaa (rosary of beads) under a vow to chant the mantra a certain number of times daily. Why do Gaudiyas emphasize devotion over learning? This is not strictly true. Renunciation, devotion, and scholarship have always been emphasized in the Gaudiya line, as evidenced by titles like Bhaktivedanta. However, neither renunciation, scholarship, nor even salvation (mukti) are considered ends in themselves. Devotional activities are not merely the means of achieving liberation but in their pure state (i.e. not contaminated by selfish desires) are eternal liberated activities. Thus the emphasis is not only on shaastra (scripture) to understand the Absolute Truth, the individual soul, and the soul's relationship with the Absolute Truth, but on saadhana-bhakti or practice of devotional service. By practicing pure devotional service the heart becomes cleansed of impurities and one comes progressively to the ultimate goal of prema-bhakti, or ecstatic devotion. How does worship by Gaudiyas differ from other Vaishnava worship? In a few ways; briefly: Gaudiyas emphasize naama-sankiirtana (congregational chanting of Krishna's names), hearing the Srimad-Bhaagavatam, living in holy places such as Vrindavan, associating with saintly persons, and worship of Tulasii. Gaudiya temple worship is generally of Raadhaa-Krishna rather than of Lakshmii-NaaraayaNa. Sometimes Gaudiya Vaishnavas worship Raadhaa-Krishna in the reverential mood of Lakshmii-NaaraayaNa. Gaudiyas worship Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as an incarnation of Krishna and Raadhaa combined. While Gaudiyas have never insisted that others accept the divinity of Sri Chaitanya, they have in the past staunchly defended the scriptural basis of this worship. Gaudiyas de-emphasize the paths of speculative knowledge (GYaana) and fruitive activities (karma). These are considered extraneous impediments to cultivation of unalloyed bhakti. For Gaudiyas, cultivation of premaa (ecstatic love for Krishna) is the ultimate goal of all worship. Thus the elaborate rules and regulations of smriti are often passed over in favor of the simpler pancharaatrikii-vidhi. Srila Gopala BhaTTa Goswami (one of the Six Goswamis) wrote a book called Sat-kriyaa-saara-diipikaa, containing essential rituals for Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Srila Sanaatana Goswami wrote Hari-bhakti-vilasa, which outlines Deity worship and other devotional activities for Gaudiyas. The Deity of the Lord is considered an incarnation of the Lord, or archaa-avataara. It is by His achintya-shakti or inconceivable potency that He can choose to assume any form He wishes to accept the loving service of His devotees. What is the Gaudiya concept of moksha? Of the five types of liberation (saaruupya, or attaining similar form to the Lord; saalokya, or attaining the same planet as the Lord; saamiipya, or attaining nearness of vicinity to the Lord; saarshTi, or attaining similar opulence to the Lord; and saayujya, or attaining oneness with the Lord) only the first four are considered acceptable. However, salvation or moksha is considered quite subsidiary to the goal of attaining unalloyed devotional service on the platform of premaa, or ecstatic love for Krishna. There is a statement to this end by Lord Kapila in the Bhagavatam, Canto 3: ... As far as saayujya is concerned, Srila Jiva Goswami explains that there are two types of saayujya: entering into the body of the Lord (as observed by those who saw Sishupala slain by the Lord's chakra), or annihilating one's existence in the Lord's effulgence (check ref. Bhag. Sand.) Needless to say, both are shunned by Gaudiyas as in either case there would be no opportunity to serve the Lord. What is the Gaudiya concept of Brahman? According to the Bhagavatam, the same non-dual substance is called variously Brahman, Paramaatmaa, and Bhagavaan. The Gaudiya understanding of this, and references to golden effulgence as in the Iishopanishad, refer to the Lord's bodily effulgence. This is one aspect or view. Another aspect of the Lord is His localized expansion as Paramaatmaa or the Supersoul within all beings. The Lord as Bhagavaan, or the Supreme Person full in six opulences, is the aspect Gaudiyas focus on. Having achieved Bhagavaan realization, one automatically realizes Brahman and Paramaatmaa. What is the significance of jiivan-mukti according to Gaudiya doctrine? By the Lord's inconceivable potency, one who is engaged completely in the service of the Lord becomes fully spiritualized in mind, body, and words, even in this lifetime. Such a person is called jiivan-mukta, or liberated in the living state. The example of an iron bar placed in a fire is sometimes given: when the iron bar becomes sufficiently heated by association with the fire, it turns red hot and acts like fire. Similarly, when one associates with Krishna without deviating from the path of pure devotion, even one's material body becomes completely spiritualized. What is the Gaudiya concept of scripture? Scripture or shaastra is revered as authoritative. The Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhaagavata PuraaNa) is given special reverence because it dispenses with speculative knowledge and fruitive activities, and cuts to the quick of pure devotional service to Krishna. Another scripture of great importance to Gaudiya Vaishnavas is Brahma-samhitaa. Originally purported to contain 100 chapters and considered lost, a copy of chapter 5 of this book, spoken by Lord Brahmaa, was found by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu during His tour of South India at the Adi-Kesava temple. Why have Gaudiya Vaishnavas reversed the Sruti-mantra? Actually, there are references to this mahaa-mantra in various places. It appears in the Kali-santaraNopanishad as well as in various PuraaNas. Some represent it as Hare Krishna, Hare Rama, others as Hare Rama, Hare Krishna. One story has it that chanting of this mantra, as it appears in the Kali-santaraNa Upanishad: Hare Raama Hare Raama Raama Raama Hare Hare Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare caused some consternation amongst caste-conscious braahmaNas as Gaudiyas were encouraging shuudras (laborers) and even Muslims to chant this mantra. Teaching shruti to such persons is proscribed, so the mantra was reversed to overcome such objections: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Raama Hare Raama Raama Raama Hare Hare As the names Krishna and Raama are considered non-different from the Lord Himself, there is no loss of the benefit of chanting these names in this slightly altered form. What are the Gaudiya institutions of the present day? ISKCON, or the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, has centers in many cities throughout the world, as well as maintaining some rural farm communities. It publishes a monthly magazine called _Back to Godhead_. The Gaudiya Vaishnava Society is based in Eugene, Oregon and publishes a quarterly magazine called Gaudiya Vedanta. You can send enquiries on this beautiful publication to Swami Vishnu or see the Clarion Call Publishing home page. The World Vaishnava Association is based in Mathura, UP, INDIA. Where can I get more information? See the following URLs: Hare Krishna Index ISKCON Home Page World Vaishnava Association Bhakti Yoga Lifestyle Gaudiya Vaishnava Society Black Peacock Home Page The Hare Krishna Tradition Gaudiya Siddhanta Discussion Group Shri Narasingha Chaitanya Matha III. Appendix: terms commonly used in Gaudiya discourse [in no particular order.] rasa Taste, specifically of the varieties of favorable relationships with the Supreme Lord Sri Krishna. rasika One who is cognizant of rasa. sahajiyaa The praakrita-sahajiyaas are one of 14 offshoots of Gaudiya Vaishnavism (some others are the Bauls, caste goswamis, etc.) This name is given because they are considered to take the exchange of rasa cheaply. raagaanuga Spontaneous attachment. In the early stages of bhakti or devotion, one follows various rules and regulations vaidhi-bhakti). As attachment for Krishna and devotional service develops, the rules and regulations become subsidiary to one's relationship with Krishna and may be neglected. ruupaanuga A follower of Ruupa Goswami, one of the principal followers of Sri Chaitanya Mahaaprabhu. ritvik Literally, an officiating priest. Some followers and disciples of Srila A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada hold that no one is currently qualified to act as guru. According to this controversial view, initiation may only be granted by one who acts on behalf of Srila Prabhupada, with the disciple becoming a disciple of Srila Prabhupada. Here are some proponents and one refutation. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted April 19, 2004 Haridasa Movement Like other part of India, Karnataka too has played its part in shaping the history of India and contributing to her development in the fields of religion and philosophy, art and literature. The distinction achieved by the Karnataka kingdoms of Kadamba, Rastrakuta, Calukya and Vijayanagar in the history of South India is well known. In the field of philosophy it has given birth to some of the most distinguished builders of Indian thought like Madhvacharya (Ananda Tiirtha), Sri Vidyaranya and Sri Vyaasa Raja. Haridasa movement owes much to the Vachanakaras of Veerasaivism and to Alwars of Tamil Nadu not only for philosophic treatment of God but also for the mode of analysing intuitive experiences of the Divine. Hari for Haridasa is a reality and all the common acts of life are sacraments. Though the beliefs of the Haridasas and of the Vachnakaras cannot be completely defined in any one credal form, the movement bred a common outlook on life, a certain common temper of mind which can be felt more easily than ana lyzed. The Haridasa movement has presented to the world a galaxy of pure and pious souls who struggled and strove for the love of Hari. Its representatives were of the Brahmin caste, but, as it was a devotional movement based on mystical experience, it spread to all classes and touched all hearts, both men and women of different communities. Haridasas mystical experience was of various kinds-Svanubhava, Anubhava, Atmanubhava, Brhasakshtkara and Aparoksha Gnana. While the Vachanakaras called mystic experience as Anubhava, Haridasas called it Aparokshgnana. Christian and Muslim as well Vaishnava and Saiva mystics have certified to mystic experience Adhyatma Anubhava, as the ultimate criterion of truth, and the constituents of this experience being the acceptance of only one God who is omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent; and the final spiritual aim and of spiritual yearning, being absorption in this Satva and attainment of Paramananda. The name of the Haridasa sect is a contraction of the compound word formed by two words Hari and Dasa meaning servants of God or Hari. The dasa even if read transverse means Sad or Sada-always a servant of God. It has got some special associations in Kannada and generally designates pilgrimage made to the temple of Vittalanatha at Pandarpur on the bank of the river Bhima, or to the Vittala Swami temples at Hampi or to Srinivasa Temple on Tirumala Hills. The presiding deities of these temples attract on Dwadashi and other festive days, a large concourse of people from all parts of the Kannada country. Haridasas are the Vishnava sect devoted to the worship of Vittala and other manifestations of Lord Krishna. The date of the origin of the Haridasa sect is steeped in deep mystery since the evidences available, do not lead us to any settled date. Bhagavatha Dharma began with the science of one God and all sentient creation, deriving their life and movement from him. Long before the formulation of Advaitic, Visistadvaitic and Dvaithic doctrines, Bhagavatha Dharma was in vogue and was practiced by servants of God in several part of India. The devotees sang verses of love and praise of God, and these were handed down from one generation to another generation, all though the centuries, broadened, deepened and enriched by more experiences of the truly devout. It was a Dharma that was not taught or instituted, but which inspired the pious and the devout to pour his soul out in spontaneous melody in supplication to the Divine. No definite date accordingly can be fixed for the emergence of this mode of life, for it is co-eval with the birth of distinction in the mind of man between himself and his creator and absolute surrender to him for sustenance and continuation of life. Valmiki and Vyasa may be regarded as followers of this tradition for their Epics are a profound prayer in praise of Rama and Krishna as manifestations of Vishnu. There is reference to this tradition in the Padmapurana descriptive of the concert in the Court of Indra, wherein Arjuna, Prahlada and Uddhava entertained the court by melody of music as an offering to the Divine. Kirtana mode of singing must have been popular at the time of the Mahabharatha and the composition of the Bhagavadgita. Heliodorus pillar at Udayagiri founded in the early years of the first century BC is a great monument in support of this tradition having influenced even Yavanas and foreigners who came to India and were converted to this way of life. The history of this Dharma during the early years of the Christian era is not clear, though Vaisnavism, and Bhagavatha tradition along with it, spread in the Deccan and South India, as borne out of references to Ganga Vishnu Gopa as Narayanacharanamudhyata and to manifestations of Vishnu in Kadamba and Ganga records. Bhaktavijya mentions of an Achalananda Dasa devoted to Narasimha manifestation of Vishnu and having undertaken long tours all over India during the hegemony of the Deccan under the Rastrakutas. The text records the Dasa as being a native of Hygunapura Bangalore Taluk but as having lived in Turvekere most of his life practicing the cult of Bhakti and founding centers for the propa gation of the Bhagavata Dharma. The Dasa is reported to have lived in the ninth century in this part of Karnataka, but there are no historical evidences to substantiate this tradition. Inscriptions earlier in date than 1275 AD have been discovered in the temple of Vittalanatha at Pandarapura and at Alandi, bearing out to the importance of this center of worship, attracting pilgrims from all over Karnataka and Maharashtra. The latest inscription is of the date 1275 AD from the temple itself which records that in that year the temple of Vittala was rebuilt and during that period from 1273 to 1277 AD funds were collected to erect a suitable temple there. It also mentions the names of those persons who contributed towards the building funds, the most prominent being the names of king Rama Deva and of his celebrated Minister Hemadri Pand, the famous writer of the Encyclopedic digests or Dharma Sastra. Earlier chronology to this inscription is the inscription of 1237 AD where we read, that a certain king called Someshwara had conquered the kings round about this territory and had encamped during that year in a town called Pandavige on the banks of Bhimawathi where Pundalika was remembered by the people as a great sage. The Padmapurana relates the account of the manifestation of Panduranga on the banks of the Bhima near Pandavige. Traditions are at one in closely associating the name of Vittala with that of his greatest devotee, Pundalika a genuine saint of great purity. It is said that Bhagawan Krishna became mightily pleased with the severe penances of Pundalika. The lord presented himself before his true devotee, and Pundalika having nothing at hand to offer presented him with a mere brick for his asana and the Lord true to his promise made to his devotee stood on it and still stands on the same piece of brick on the sandy banks of the Bhimawathi. But, as to when and where the saint Pundalika actually lived, we have not any records to determine. There is a tradition that Achalananda Dasa of the 9th century, once visited Pandarapura and offered holy water to Viithal and was overjoyed at the manifestation of Panduranga, and then, in a state of ecstasy changed his appellation from Narasimhadasa, his original name, to Achala nanda Vitthala. Though the dates of Pundalika and of Achalananda have not been precisely determined so far, still, we can positively assert that the Haridasa sect which was dedicated to Vitthala originates sometime before the beginning of the 15th century and that its salient features were already in evidence in the last quarter of the same century when Sripadaraja and Vyasaraja were born. The great movement of Vaishnava religious devotionalism, which began to spread and regenerate the masses during the middle ages, had its origin in what is called the Dasa Kuta or the order of Vaishnava psalmists and saints, inaugurated in the Karnataka country as a result of the spread of the realistic philosophy of Vedanta propounded in South India in the thirteenth century by Madhvacharya. The philosophy of Vedantic realism spread over upper and lower Karnataka in the next two centuries and, in the course of time, began to inspire kindred waves and movements of religious devotionalism beyond the confines of Karnataka. The Haridasas of Karnataka were preachers of devotion to God and made distinctive contribution to the religious life of Karnataka. They conveyed great and sacred truths in Kannada in a very simple and clear style so as to be understood by the common people. The followers of the great Madvacharya preached his doctrine of a knowledgeful devotion to God, through the medium of melodious songs called 'devaranama'. Though initial inspiration of the Dasas was derived from Madhva himself who has given stirring devotional lyrics in such sanskrit works as dvadasa-stotra, Sri Narahari Tiirtha (1300 AD) the direct disciple of Madhvacharya may be regarded as the founder of the Haridasa movement, though very few songs are available of him in Kannada. Sri Padaraja Tiirtha is well-known as the grandfather of Haridasas (Haridasa Pitamaha). He made a bold attempt to compose songs in simple kannada, expounding the difficult and highly philosophical teachings of Madva in simple and clear language. Sri Padaraja's disciple Sri Vyasaraja gave great impetus to the Haridasa movement and made it very popular by his disciples who are chief among Haridasas - Sri Purandaradasa and Sri Kanakadasa. The center of activity of the Haridasas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was Vijaynagar (Hampi) and near by places, and Sri Purandara Dasa and Sri Kanaka Dasa were the chief architects. The great Sri Vadiraja Tiirtha the contemporary of Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha and also his disciple is considered to be another pillar of Dasa movement. He is renowned as a great leader of both the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. Sri Padaraja, Sri Vyaasaraja and Sri Vadiraja are called 'yathi trayaru' three great saints in Dasa movement. Sri Padaraja is the beginner and grandfather of Dasa's, Sri Vadiraja promoter of dasa sahitya by his scholarly contribution and Sri Vyaasaraja has made dasa movement more popular by his esteemed disciples. The next stage was set in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and this time the centre was Raichur and surrounding places. The famous names of this age were Sri Vijaya Dasa, Sri Gopala Dasa, Sri Jagannatha Dasa, Sri Prasanna Venkata Dasa, Sri Pranesha Dasa, Sri Mohana Dasa and others. To conclude R.S.Panchamukhi has divided the History of Haridasa moment into four steps according to the lineage of Haridasas and generations. They are First Step : Sri Narahari Tiirtha to Sri Jayatiirtha Second Step : Sri Padaraja Tiirtha to Sri Kanaka Dasaru Third Step : Sri Vijaya Dasaru and his disciplies Fourth step : Sri Pranesha Dasaru to present Haridasas. The history of the sect from the 14th century to the present day, is a history of continual growth, characterized by a genuine vitality of its doctrines and by an all round success of its great mission as those of the Vachanakaras. Both these movements pervade the length and breadth of Karnataka and exert ennobling influences upon the neighboring provinces of Andhra and Tamilnadu. The Haridasa movement was a religious movement for the popularization and Propagation of the doctrines of the Vaidika Dharma among the masses. To achieve this end, the followers of the sect have produced a rich literature in Kannada and have thus been able to reach the hearts of the man in the street. It is perfectly 'Vaidika' in tone, and in its tenets and has been perhaps the greatest interpreter of the abstract metaphysics and sublimity of sentiment of Vedic and Upanishadic teaching in simple and intelligible language to the masses Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
gokulkr 1 Report post Posted April 30, 2004 The Concept of 'devotion' with reference Haridasas History of Devotion/Bhakthi The existence of relationship between God and devotee is not of now it is there since the vedic times ie about 5000 years back. This relationship is considered to be devotional. The beginning of bhakthi may be traced in the hymns of the R^igveda where (Rg I, 62.11) "longing prayers are said to touch Indra who is Longing just as a wife with desires gets her husband". This idea is amplified in another hymn (Rg X, 43.1) which says "All my hymns in unison praise Indra: as wifes embrace their husbands so do my thoughts embrace Indra the divine bestrew of gifts. For the sake of a favor they cling to the liberal God (Indra) as wives do their lords (or as a woman) does her handsome lover". In another hymn (Rg VI 45.26), Indra is addressed as a friend and it is said that there is no limit to his friendship and he gives cows to those who want cows, and horses to those who want horses. Even bhakti is traced in Sindhu civilization according to researchers who have traced in Harappa and Mohenjadaro research sites which is very strange. In that research they found big buildings which are identical of temples and concludes that their innovation reveals that they found traces of existence of Shiva idols, Naga devataas, animals, trees, stone idols and these are identified as worshipping deities at that time. Definition Religion in India is more a direct experience than a code of conduct and from an early age different systems or margas (paths) have been prescribed for attaining the goal, variously called liberation, bliss and heaven. However, the different margas were not contradictory and in some respects they supplemented each other; for example proficiency in Jnana-yoga, Raja-yoga and Bhakthi yoga are demanded from the highest sadhakas (devotees). The word bhakthi is derived from the root bhaj by the application of the ktin suffix, which expresses an action, (Panini III, 3, 94) and means among other things service, devotion, attachment, loyalty, worship and homage. The Narada bhakti-sutra states that: According to the son of Parsara (ie Vyasa) bhakti is attachment to worship of God, etc. According to Garga, bhakthi is fondness for hearing the stories of the various sports of Lord; According to Sandilya, bhakti is such attachment to God which is opposed to self; According to Narada bhakti consists of offering all activities to God and inducing a feeling of extreme restless ness and misery at the slightest lapse in rememberance of God; and then the author of Narada-bhakti-sutra adds asty-evam-evam, that is bhakti is exactly as described above. Sri Sankara in his commentary on the Gita (VIII, 19, XIV, 26) says that worship is bhakti (bhajanam bhaktih) and defines ananya bhakti (Gita XI 54) as non-experience of anything other than Vasudeva. In explaining dhyana in the Gita (XIII, 24) Sankara says that meditation is a continuous and unbroken thought; like a line of flowing oil. The great protagonist of bhakti was Sri Ramanuja, to whom meditation (dhyana) and devotion (bhakthi) were interchangeable terms. Commenting on the first aphorism of the Brahmasutra he states: 'Meditation' means steady remembrance that is continuity of steady remembrance, uninterrupted like the flow of oil... steady remembrance of this kind is designated by the word 'devotion' (bhakthi); for this term has the same meaning as upasana (meditation or worship). Thus according to him, continuous meditation or dhyana is bhakthi which is a synonym of upasana. According Sri Madhvacharya bhakti and jnana are practically synonymous terms. In his Anu-vyakhyana (III, 4, p 51) he writes "Jnana being a constituent of bhakti, the latter is often referred to as jnana. Where the aspect of attachment is sought to be emphasized, their fusion is designated by the term bhakti. As mediacy and immediacy are integral parts of knowledge, similarly bhakti is particular kind of jnana. Thus whenever the scriptures speak of jnana as the means of release, bhakti is certainly indented. Sometimes the two are referred to separately". In the same context Sri Madhva declares "By bhakti one attains jnana, which leads to bhakti, when comes perception which again lead to bhakti; then come mukti, which is of the essence of bliss and (in the nature of) an end in itself". The supremacy of bhakti is made clear by Sri Madva in his commentary on the Brahmasutra (III, 2.19) where he observes that the soul's essential nature does not become fully manifested without bhakti. It is this conception of bhakti as propounded by Sri Madhva which formed the basis of the Haridasa Movement or bhakti movement. Haridasas and Bhakti Of the four sadhanas (paths) to liberation or reality ie Karma Marga, Gnana Marga, Yoga Marga and Bhakti marga most of the Karnataka Haridasas has recognised the last one, which was the easiest and most fruitful in their early life. Of all the passions the unappeased hunger of the heart of God, Bhakti is ultimate. Total surrender to the almighty is signal on the path of devotion. Based on the Upanishads, the Puranas and personal experience, the builders of the path of devotion have chosen to reach God by their master-servant mother-child, preceptor-disciple (Guru-Shishya), vatsalya (friendly) and madhura (love) Relationship. Love and devotion lead one to release from the trammels of worldly sufferings. The royal road starts with the directions in Bhagawatha Purana and the Geetha. Liberation is devotion slave. The two scriptures, the Srimad Bhagavad Gita and Srimad Bhagavata purana are considered to be one of the basis of the bhakti philosophy of the middle ages. The Gita as is well known is a part of the Mahabharata, while the Bhagavata is an independent work. Haridasas Lineage centered their affections on Vittala of Pandharapur as the patron deity of their order. There is evidence to show that Karnataka had cultural sway over Pandharpur and its neighborhood, where the worship of Vithala developed in ancient times, though the later days, the region passed under the political and cultural hegemony of Maharastra mysticism. Even as late as the time of the great Maharastra saint Janesvara, Vittala of Pandharpur was still spoken of as the deity beloved of the Karnataka Enshrined in Karnataka. The Dasas of Karnataka were thus the first to develop the cult of devotion to Vitthala and make it a living faith and a powerful instrument of mass uplift through the aid of their soul-stirring music and bhajana in the language of their province. Their example was subsequently taken up and carried further by the saints of the neighboring province of Maharashtra like Ramadasa, Tukarama and others. But the essential Features of this cult viz. emphasis laid on true devotion to Vithala and the comparative unimportance of social and caste barriers in the Spiritual realm, are to be found no less passionately voice in the songs of the early Dasas of Karnataka than in those of the Maharashtra saints. The Dasa Kuta may therefore be regarded as the earliest movement of religious devotionalism in the Deccan, and then it spread to other parts of upper India and produced kindred movements. Components of Bhakti Sri Narada-bhakti-sutra defines eleven components of bhakti. They are Guna, Rupa, Puja, Smarana, Sakhya, Kanta, Vatsalya, Madhurya, Atmanivedana, Tanmaya and Virah. Although bhakti is only one; this has been defined based on the liking and interest of the devotees. In the Srimad Bhagavata (II, I.21) it is stated that "being fully practised in meditation one attains bhakti-yoga in a short time", which indicates that bhakti is not a means to an end but the end itself. In the seventh chapter of the Bhagavata (VII, 5.23) the nine components of bhakti are enumerated as shrvana bhakti, kirtana bhakti, smarana bhakti, padasa sevana bhakti, archana bhakti, vandana bhakti, dasya bhakti, sakhya bhakti and atmanivedana bhakti. All Haridasas amazingly versatile compositions are illustrative of the above modes of approach to Paramathma through bhakti. These modes of approach are favored because of the difficulty of Jnana Marga, wherein God is conceived as Nirguna and Nirakara, remote and transcedental. In the 14th verse of Gita, lord Krishna says that the location of both Manas and Buddhi in Paramathma is adequate for the realisation of the Divine. Thus, Bhaktimarga is unique in transcending Karma Marga, Jnana Marga and Yoga marga and the easiest mode of approach to reality. To illustrate the Nine Forms of Bhakti; K Vasudevacharya has drawn a comparative study of Sri Thygaraja and Sri Purandra Dasa with their compositions respectively. It goes like this Comparative Study of Sri Thygaraja and Sri Purandara's Compositions on Nine Forms of Bhakti Nine Forms of Bhakti Sri Purandara Compositions Sri Thygaraja Compositions Shrvanam kathA Shrvana mAdO rAmakathA sudhi kIrtanam harinAma kIrtanE rathadE dhanyudi nAma kIrtanaparadu smaranaM smaranavOde sAlade smaranE sukhamU pAdasEvanaM bIde nInna pAdava srI rAmapAdama archanaM karagaleradu nInnarchisali nAmakusuM va.ndanam SharNu ninage.mbE va.ndanumU raghUna.ndana dAsyaM dAsana madIkO dAsOhaM AtmanIvEdanaM mAtapItaru ninaga.ndE mAridarEnna sw.aMtamani sarOja mUnu sama^rpaNamUjEU sakHyam ya.ndapIko.mbhe athadE..salpamanaya.du Source : K.Vasudevacharya : A Comparative Study of Sri Thygaraja and other Vaggeya Karas- Coimbatore, Sri Purandradasa Souvenir, 1964, 33p. Assumptions of Five Forms of Bhakthi (pancha vidha bhava bhakti kalpane) The components of bhakti has been narrated from narada-bhakti-sutra and Srimad Bhagavata and out of these components or aspects Five forms has been derived in order to explain the nectars of bhakti to elicit more knowledge from the haridasa sahitya. This is called pancha vida bhava. This five division of bhakti is only to excercise and to get more mileage out of it. The five forms of bhakti is : dasya bhava sakhya bhava madhura bhava vatsalya bhava shanta bhava dasya bhava carries the meaning that devotee is servant or God is treated as his holiness, master, swamy, king (dore), sir (dani), leader (odaya) etc. to him. While worshipping Sri Hari these forms are considered. Those who considered Sri Hari as King (odaya) and devotee as servant is called Haridasas. If you go further into the compositions, understanding of Haridasas these aspects can be further divided in to the following types : Ambition to become Haridasas and taking refuge with God for the same knowing much about how haridasas will be eager to join or mingle with other haridasas preaching yourself and others to become haridasas By pure devotion charging to become dasa and considering Bhagavantha (God) as King (odaya) and others are his servants and achieve the goal. sakhya bhava is knowing or have understanding of the knowledge that Sri Hari is utmost/superior and worshipping him in that mind is sakhya (friendly) bhakti bhava. In this form devotee himself considers that God is his friend and always will be with him. At time the devotee will question, punish, rag him (God) thinking that he is his friend and even he will show his anger towards him. But suddenly he will consolidate and comeback to normal. These things has been explained by Haridasas in their compositions very well. The importance of of sakya bhava is realized by the saint, for, he knows for good or evil a man's moral and spiritual outlook is altered by the ineffable influence of his comrade. Friendship is an incalculable enlargement of human responsibility, because it constitutes us, in a measure, as guardians of each other's soul, for there is a fuller and deeper self realization on either side. It is deliverance from bondage, a refuge from pride. The great gifts of the Lord as a comrade, makes the Bhakta recognizes his own deep unworthiness and how his head in unspeakable gratitude. The friendship of the Lord is not checked or foiled by the discovery of faults or blemishes in the Bhaktha, whom he has taken into His life; for the essence of friendship is entirety, a total magnanimity and trust. madhura bhava In this form devotee-bhagavantha are considered to be husband-wife form and worship is called madhura bhakti. The form is called madhura bhava. In this form there is no physical (body) relationship and it is only through atma-paramathma's evolution is madhura bhava. Some of them are considered that the sex which is very existence in man is the basement for this bhava. But only with pure love worshipping with Sri Hari is madhura bhava. In this bhava the devotee will be reach ecstasy when he gets Sri Hari and also suffer heavily when he feels separation with him. From the compositions of Haridasas madhura bhava may be again further divided into five fold to understand better. They are: inclination of Gopikas to see Krishna and invitation to him one seeing him and after his knotty plays; requesting him not to do the same reporting/complaining to Yashoda Gopikas abandonment (viraha) and other seperation assumptions. This form of bhakthi may cease to be sensual prurience of rebellious adolescence and become the true soul's ardor of a Radha to Krishna; then earthly beauty may be seen to be but a tiny, evanescent spray of the Immortal ineffable sea of splendor; the life may be deemed as a travail of the spirit towards fuller and longer realizations, and death not as grisly phantom, but as merciful awakening into a more spacious existence. The Bhaktha seeks the companionship of God all through, and the Paramathma is always a fellow traveler with him. He limps when the pilgrim limps, walks with the Bhakta when he walks, and induces him to move on till the very end. Samsara or family existence is full of sorrow and the individual is committing daily, either through the flesh or mind or the senses, sins of the spirit or of the flesh from which there is no escape except through th bhaktimarga. vatsalya bhava Though there is saying that 'mat^ru devObhava, pit^ru devObhava' devotees will consider God as their child and they consider them selves as mother for the God child. Having such assumption they will flow their vatsalya or parental fondess towards Sri Hari and look after him in that angle. This form is pure love which is equal to mother-child affection. It is this association that binds the two with the tie of blood as in the case of the mother and the child, and the little one is never weaned away from the mother, whose existence and movements are intuitively sense by the child. Like any mother who is considerate for her kid for whatever misdeeds they do when the kid gives smile she will forget everything and gives everything in her life for the welfare. All Haridasas has expressed this form through their songs in praise of Krishna and Yashoda. Haridasas fondness towards mother Yashoda and Krishna can be put into four different ways. They are: Mother Yashoda's fondness towards Krishna Hearing Complaints and knotty plays from Gopikas by Yashoda and Krishna's answer for all those complaints. Praising Yashoda's virtues and Haridasas happy feeling Other assumptions Haridasas have shown their own life that bhaktas do not fly from passions, but they transform them and raise them to a higher level where life is freed from the limitations of sense. The deepest and most intense of early passions of Bhakti for God then attains unlimited satisfaction and the marriage of soul and God is a harmony without discord, freedom without bond, reality without illusion, satisfaction without striving, love without longing, and life without death. Quote Share this post Link to post Share on other sites
