Introduction: Features of Tantra
Andre Padoux observes “that it is practically impossible to define ‘Tantra’ or, at least, to agree on its definition.” This is partly because Tantra is such
a diffuse and wide-ranging phenomenon. Some features of Tantra are
found in non-Tantric Indian traditions and it is a category that was developed
by outsiders from the West, not by Tantrikas themselves (2002: 17,
23, 22). Sri Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) himself presumed a distinctive
tradition of Tantra, even though he did not define it in a systematic way
and he did not directly cite his sources for it. However, his view ofTantra
corresponds generally to that given in recent scholarly characterizations.
Very generally, Tantra can be understood as “a complex assortment of
ritual procedures oriented towards manipulating cosmic powers” (Rodrigues
2005: 378). These ritual actions can involve certain antinomian practices
within a sctdhana (practice or path) that aims to transcend traditional distinctions
between the sacred and profane. Tantric rituals are in some cases
presented as alternatives to Vedic ritual procedures and are drawn from textual
authorities other than Vedas or Vedangas. Tantric theory and practice
can also include occult elements that are thought to support one’s acquisition
of siddhis (spiritual powers or perfections). Tantra typically stresses the
empowerment of the body in the movement toward deification. Though
sometimes accessible to men and women from all social strata, Tantric ritual
action and theory are generally framed within a context of secrecy that
includes initiation by a guru and the use of code language (Flood 2006: 11;
Goudriaan 1979: 7-9; Rodrigues 2006: 381-84, 391 ). These features-the
occult, empowerment, secrecy and guru-initiation-are all present in some
form in the earlier stages of Aurobindo’s spirituality.
Aurobindo’s spirituality includes Sakti as a major component-where
the creative source and animation of the cosmos is regarded as a feminine
power or energy that is manifested in various forms as the Goddess.
Although Aurobindo’s Saktism leans heavily towards bhakti (devotional
worship), there are elements in it that appear to correspond with features
of Sakta Tantrism. The Goddess is often associated in Sakta Tantrism with
a male deity, within traditional conceptions that identify the masculine
principle as spirit/consciousness while the feminine principle is the active
and creative principle of the Divine (Padoux 1987b: 276). Aurobindo conceived
of the Godhead generally along those lines, and he stressed the
divine Mother as a fearsome and empowering figure in his early political
teachings and the secret revolutionary societies he founded.
Tantric traditions also typically stress the human body, both as a microcosm
of the Goddess which interacts with her and as a potential manifestation
of her divine power. In that regard, Kundalini Yoga has traditionally
been associated with Tantric traditions. In focussing on embodied experience
and transformation, Aurobindo explicitly drew out the theory, sym295
bols and practices associated with this aspect of Tantra, especially in exploring
the relevance of the cakra (spiritual energy) system to his spirituality.
Despite these correspondences, Aurobindo’s view of Kundalini Yoga also represents
a point of contrast in the creative dialogue between his mature spirituality
and Tantra. Moreover, his later view did not include more
transgressive elements usually associated with Tantric practice. This paper
explores these comparative contexts between Tantra and Aurobindo’s Saktism,
as they evolved historically over different phases of his life. Aurobindo
tones down and marks off his Saktism from more antinomian forms of
Tantra. However, this paper will illustrate that Aurobindo’s mature spirituality
was shaped in significant ways by his understanding of Tantra, and
that its tenor and vision remain to some extent Tantric. I begin by framing
briefly Aurobindo’s life and spirituality.
Aurobindo’s spirituality
Born in Calcutta in 1872, Aurobindo was sent at the age of seven with his
two older brothers to study in England. Their father, Kristo Dhone Ghose,
had been educated as a medical doctor at Aberdeen University and was at
the time stridently pro-British. He hoped his sons would eventually be able
to enter the Covenanted Civil Service of India. Following five years of tutoring
by an English couple with whom he lived in Manchester, Aurobindo studied
for six years at St. Paul’s school in London (1884-90) and then entered
King’s College, Cambridge with a senior classical scholarship, where he
studied Classics and Literature as well as the curriculum for the Indian
Civil Service. By all accounts he was an exceptional student, but his failure
to attend a horseback riding exam meant he did not complete the ICS
requirements. Returning to India in 1893, he entered the State Service of
Baroda, employed in various administrative positions by the Maharaja,
Sayajirao Gaekwar. From 1897-1901 and 1904-05 he taught at Baroda’s
government college and in 1906-07 he worked as principal of the Bengal
National College in Calcutta (Heehs 1989: 6-27).
Aurobindo turned positively towards Hindu spirituality only at the age
of 21, after his return to India, following this formative period of studies
in England from 1879-93. From 1893 to 1910, Aurobindo became deeply
involved in Indian politics, especially by writing revolutionary material for
journals and speeches, and by initiating sayrtitis (secret societies) that would
work towards swarajya (Indian independence). Kees Bolle, suggests that as
a political leader in this period Aurobindo was “second in importance perhaps
only to Tilak” (1971: 80). Also during this time Aurobindo immersed
himself in some of the major Hindu scriptures and he reported a number
of spontaneous mystical experiences (Ghose 1972b: 50). By 1904 he was
committed to the practice of Yoga ( 1972b: 18, 77). In 1908 he was arrested
and charged with terrorist activities. About a year later he was acquitted of these charges and soon moved to French India, settling in Pondicherry in
1910. There he retired from political life and immersed himself in a relatively
isolated spiritual practice. An ashram formed around Aurobindo in
Pondicherry, where, over the next 40 years, he developed a widely synthetic
spiritual view, drawing mainly upon Hindu scriptures and traditions.
However, his spiritual perspective can be outlined generally with little reference
to specific Hindu theory and practice.
In his mature thought, Aurobindo classified reality into four major
planes or levels of existence: the supramental (or spiritual), mental, vital
and material. Each of these planes has various gradations and aspects and
is constituted by particular beings, powers and movements, which can function
independently or interact with aspects of other planes, in supportive
and integrative ways. So, for example, at one level the human person is physically
constituted by gross matter and can be analyzed as such solely in
terms of forms or aspects of the material dimension, as in the case of a dead
human body. However, when a person is alive, she or he is also a spiritual,
mental and vital being, and able to participate in the forces, movements and
powers of these other planes of reality, at least to the degree to which she/he
is open and capable. Moreover, these higher planes of reality act upon and
are affected by the material plane in various ways, through a person’s
thoughts, feelings and actions in relation to the external environment.
Aurobindo proposed a hierarchical schema in this context, postulating
an evolutionary movement of creation that is spiritually transformative.
Historically, physical being and consciousness gradually evolved to manifest
life-activity or the underlying vital plane, which has come to dominate
the realm of gross matter. Then life gradually evolved to the point of man-
. ifesting thought or the underlying mental plane, which in turn came to dominmate
the vital and physical planes. The third movement in the series
involves the integration of a higher spiritual dimension with these lower
three planes of reality, what he calls the descent of “supramental Truth-Consciousness&
dquo; into physical consciousness (Ghose 1966: 244, 81). According
to Aurobindo, humanity is now potentially able to cooperate in this radical
shift, in opening to a transcendent spiritual “Supermind” and allowing
it to penetrate these lower planes of reality, where eventually it will transform,
influence and direct them. He writes:
[T]he higher precipitate their influence on the lower, the lower react to the higher
and develop or manifest in themselves within their own formula something that corresponds
to the superior power and its action. The material world has evolved life
in obedience to a pressure from the vital plane, mind in obedience to a pressure
from the mental plane. It is now trying to evolve supermind in obedience to a pressure
from the supramental plane. (1966: 186)
Aurobindo developed a synthesis of traditional Hindu practice and
belief that he thought most appropriately supported this general framework
297
of spiritual integration and transformation. As we shall see, he tended to
emphasize Saktism in his spirituality. He encouraged his devotees to work
to become more and more open to supramental Reality and to draw it into
material consciousness. This means one must aspire towards the dissolution
of the ego. The ego is a self-separating and isolating faculty that serves
one well in the advancement and refinement of personal emotional-intellectual
consciousness, but it acts negatively in masking one’s underlying relation,
dependence and ultimate unity with the Divine. The ideal is to
co-operate with the divine Mother in the spiritual transformation of mental,
vital and physical consciousness-to become more and more aware of
and open to the divine presence and movement (Ghose 1970c: 734). One
strives to surrender to Sakti, and to embody and express this Reality in
physical life. He writes, “The Supramental Yoga is at once an ascent towards
God and a descent of the Godhead into the embodied nature.” (Ghose
1966: 258).
For Aurobindo, this supramental power corresponds in many respects
with Sakti, as She is characterized in some Hindu Tantric texts and schools.
He suggested that Hindu traditions that stress the realization of the Divine
in and through nature tend to focus on feminine aspects in their devotion
to the Divine, because the feminine is conceived as providing the creative
and formative energy for life. He writes: “the Tantric tradition leans on the
Shakti or Ishwari aspect and makes all depend on the Divine Mother
because its object is to possess and dominate the world-nature and arrive
at the supreme realization through it” (Ghose 1975b: 72; 1972c: 65-66).
The conception of Sakti appealed to Aurobindo relatively early in the development
of his spirituality, perhaps in part because of its suitability to his
interests in transforming the political situation of India.
