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Here is some info on the sativa issue from purdue university.

 

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cannabis_sativa.html

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Chinese Herbal Medicine

 

 

 

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Cannabis sativa L.

Syn.: Cannabis indica Lam.

Cannabaceae

Hemp, Marijuana, Cannabis oil

Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.

 

 

Uses

Folk Medicine

Chemistry

Toxicity

Description

Germplasm

Distribution

Ecology

Cultivation

Harvesting

Yields and Economics

Energy

Biotic Factors

References

 

 

 

Uses

A multiple-use plant, furnishing fiber, oil, medicine, and narcotics. Fibers

are best produced from male plants. In the temperate zone, oil is produced

from females which have been left to stand after the fiber-producing males have

been harvested. Leaves are added to soups in southeast Asia. Varnish is made

from the pressed seeds. Three types of narcotics are produced: hashish

(bhang), the dried leaves and flowers of male and female shoots; ganja, dried

unfertilized inflorescences of special female plants; and charas, the crude

resin, which is probably the strongest. Modern medicine uses cannabis in

glaucoma and alleviating the pains of cancer and chemotherapy. More resin is

produced in tropical than in temperate climates. Lewis lung adenocarcinonoma

growth has been retarded by oral administration of

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinol, but

not by cannabidiol. (J.N.C.I. 55: 597-602. 1975). The delta-9 also inhibits

the replication of Herpes simplex virus.

 

Folk Medicine

 

Medicinally, plants are tonic, intoxicant, stomachic, antispasmodic, analgesic,

narcotic, sedative and anodyne. Seeds and leaves are used to treat old cancer

and scirrhous tumors. The seed, either as a paste or as an unguent, is said to

be a folk remedy for tumors and cancerous ulcers. The decoction of the root is

said help remedy hard tumors and knots in the joints. The leaf, prepared in

various manners, is said to alleviate cancerous sores, scirrhous tumors, cold

tumors, and white tumors. The plant is also used for mammary tumors and corns

(C.S.I.R., 1948-1976). Europeans are said to use the dregs from

Cannabis pipes in "cancer cures" (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Few

plants have a greater array of folk medicine uses: alcohol withdrawal, anthrax,

asthma, blood poisoning, bronchitis, burns, catarrh, childbirth, convulsions,

coughs, cystitis, delirium, depression, diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea,

epilepsy, fever, gonorrhea, gout, inflammation, insomnia, jaundice, lockjaw,

malaria, mania, mennorhagia, migraine, morphine withdrawal, neuralgia, palsy,

rheumatism, scalds, snakebite, swellings, tetany, toothache, uteral prolapse,

and whooping cough. Seeds ground and mixed with porridge given to weaning

children.

 

Chemistry

Most varieties contain cannabinol and cannabinin; Egyptian variety contains

cannabidine, cannabol and cannabinol, their biological activity being due to

the alcohols and phenolic compounds. Resin contains crystalline compound

cannin. Alcoholic extracts of American variety vary considerably in

physiological activity. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 8.8 g H2O,

21.5 g protein, 30.4 g fat, 34.7 g total carbohydrate, 18.8 g fiber, and 4.6 g

ash. In Asia, per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 421 calories, 13.6 g

H2O, 27.1 g protein, 25.6 g fat, 27.6 g total carbohydrate, 20.3 g fiber, 6.1 g

ash, 120 mg Ca, 970 mg P, 12.0 mg Fe, 5 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.32 mg

thiamine, 0.17 mg riboflavin, and 2.1 mg niacin. A crystalline globulin has

been isolated from defatted meal. It contains 3.8% glycocol, 3.6 alanine, 20.9

valine and leucine, 2.4 phenylalanine, 2.1 tyrosine, 0.3 serine, 0.2 cystine,

4.1 proline, 2.0 oxyproline, 4.5 aspartic acid, 18.7 glutamic acid, 14.4

tryptophane and arginine, 1.7 lysine, and 2.4% histidine. Oil from the seeds

contains 15% oleic, 70% linoleic, and 15% linolenic and isolinolenic acids.

The seed cake contains 10.8% water, 10.2% fat, 30.8% protein, 40.6% N-free

extract, and 7.7% ash (20.3% K2O; 0.8% Na2O; 23.6% CaO, 5.7% MgO, 1.0% Fe2O3,

36.5% P2O5, 0.2% SO3; 11.9% SiO2, 0.1% Cl and a trace of Mn2O3). Trigonelline

occurs in the seed. Cannabis also contains choline, eugenol, guaiacol,

nicotine, and piperidine (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976), all listed as toxins by the

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. A beta-resercyclic acid

derivative has antibiotic and sedative properties; with a murine LD56 of 500

mg/kg, it has some aritiviral effect and inhibits the growth of mouse mammary

tumor in egg embryo (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

 

Toxicity

Non-users may suffer muscular incoordination (9 of 22 persons), dizziness (8),

difficulty concentrating (8), confusion (7), difficulty walking (7), dysarthria

(7), dry mouth (7), dysphagia (5), blurred vision (5), and vomiting (1),

following oral ingestion of THC disguised in cookies (MMWR, October 20, 1978).

People working with the plant or the fiber may develop dermatitis. In larger

doses, hemp drugs may induce catalepsy, followed by coma and DEATH from cardiac

failure (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976).

 

Description

Annual herb, usually erect; stems variable, up to 5 m tall, with resinous

pubescence, angular, sometimes hollow, especially above the first pairs of true

leaves; basal leaves opposite, the upper leaves alternate, stipulate, long

petiolate, palmate, with 3-11, rarely single, lanceolate, serrate, acuminate

leaflets up to 10 cm long, 1.5 cm broad; flowers monoecious or dioecious, the

male in axillary and terminal panicles, apetalous, with 5 yellowish petals and

5 poricidal stamens; the female flowers germinate in the axils and terminally,

with one 1-ovulate ovary; fruit a brown, shining achene, variously marked or

plain, tightly embracing the seed with its fleshy endosperm and curved embryo.

Fl. summer; fr. late summer to early fall; year round in tropics.

Seeds weigh 1.5-2.5 gm/100 seeds.

Germplasm

As Cannabis sativa has been cultivated for over 4,500 years for

different purposes, many varieties and cultivars have been selected for

specific purposes, as fiber, oil or narcotics. Drug-producing selections grow

better and produce more drug in the tropics; oil and fiber producing plants

thrive better in the temperate and subtropical areas. Many of the cultivars

and varieties have been named as to the locality where it is grown mainly.

However, all so called varieties freely interbreed and produce various

combinations of the characters. The form of the plant and the yield of fiber

from it vary according to climate and particular variety. Varieties cultivated

particularly for their fibers have long stalks, branch very little, and yield

only small quantities of seed. Varieties which are grown for the oil from

their seed are short in height, mature early and produce large quantities of

seed. Varieties grown for the drugs are short, much-branched with smaller

dark-green leaves. Between these three main types of plants are numerous

varieties which differ from the main one in height, extent of branching and

other characteristics. Reported from the Central Asia, Hindustani, and

Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity, marijuana or cvs thereof is reported to

tolerate disease, drought, fungus, high pH, insects, laterite, low pH,

mycobacteria, poor soil, slope, and weeds. (2n = 20, 10, 40.)

 

Distribution

Native to Central Asia, and long cultivated in Asia, Europe, and China. Now a

widespread tropical, temperate and subarctic cultivar and waif. The oldest use

of hemp seems to be for fiber, and later the seeds began to be used for

culinary purposes. Plants yielding the drug seem to have been discovered in

India, cultivated for medicinal purposes as early as 900 BC. In medieval times

it was brought to North Africa where today it is cultivated exclusively for

hashish or kif.

 

Ecology

Plants very adaptable to soil and climatic conditions. Hemp for fiber requires

a mild temperate climate with at least 67 cm annual rainfall, with abundant

rain while seeds are germinating and until young plants become established.

Thrives on rich, fertile, neutral to slightly alkaline, well-drained silt or

clay loams with moisture retentive subsoils; does not grow well on acid, sandy

soils. Of the many types of hemp, some are adapted to most vegetated terrains

and climates. Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Tropical Very

Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, marijuana is reported to tolerate annual

precipitation of 3 to 40 dm (mean of 44 cases = 9.9 dm), annual temperature of

6 to 27°C (mean of 44 cases = 14.4), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 38 cases

6.5) (Duke, 1978, 1979).

Cultivation

Propagation mainly by seed. Experimentally, drug plants have been propagated

from cuttings but such plants do not come true as to drug content of parent.

Seeds stored in cool, dry place remain viable for up to two years. Hemp seed

sown as early in spring as possible. Before sowing, land is plowed (in fall)

several times to a depth of about 20-23 cm and repeatedly harrowed the land.

In spring the land is harrowed again and rolled, making a firm tilth over the

entire surface. In some areas a first plowing is done in the fall and red

clover or lupin planted; in January or February a second plowing turns these

under as a green-manure. Generally sown in March, seeds germinate at low

temperature, but not below 1deg.C. Rate of seed sown varies with type of fiber

desired; for coarse fiber for cordage and coarser textiles, 2.5 bu/ha is used;

for finest fibers, 7.5-10 bu/ha used. Seed sown by machine in rows from 12 cm

upwards, placing the seed at depth of 3.5 cm at rate of 40-60 kg/ha. In many

countries seed sown broadcast. When grown for seed (oil), seed sown by drills;

then such plants sometimes reach height of 5.3 m with thick stems up to 5 cm in

diameter, much-branched. For fiber, stems up to 2 m tall and 0.5 cm in

diameter are best; larger stems tend to get woody and have lower fiber content.

Besides, they are more difficult to handle during harvesting, retting and

scutching. Plants require little cultivation, except for weeding during early

stages of growth. Hemp grows rapidly and soon crowds out weeds. After plants

are 20 cm tall, weeding is abandoned. Hemp tends to exhaust the soil of

nutrients. Some nutrients are returned to the soil after plants are harvested.

On medium fertile soils a dressing of farm manure or a green-manure crop should

be added and turned under. Chalk, potash, or gypsum may be applied to the soil

to add the needed nutrition. Sodium nitrate and ammonium along with potassium

sulfate have a beneficial effect on the fiber crop. Fiber-producing plants

should always have plenty of proper nutrients, especially nitrogen, which is

the most important element needed. Irrigation is seldom practiced.

Harvesting

Hemp is ready for harvest four to five months after planting, rarely earlier

for some varieties. Harvesting depends on the climatic conditions, the variety

of hemp grown and whether the crop is being grown for hemp or seed. In

temperate areas, hemp is usually harvested from mid July to mid August. Both

male and female plants look alike until they flower; then the male plants turn

yellow and die, whereas the female plants remain dark green for another month

until the seed ripens. Male plants are ready to harvest for fiber when the

leaves change from dark green to light brown. The best yield of fiber (and

only male plants are used) is then obtained. Hemp is harvested when the

staminate flowers are beginning to open and shed their pollen. Seed is

harvested from the female plants when most of it falls off when the plant is

shaken. Best time of day to harvest seed is in early morning when fruits are

turgid and conditions damp. As fruits dry out by mid-day, seed loss increases

due to shattering. Usually stems are cut and the seeds shaken out over canvas

sheets or beaten with sticks to extract the seeds. For fiber, hemp plants are

cut by hand with a hemp knife, similar to a long-handled sickle. Plants are

cut 2-3 cm above the ground and spread on the ground to dry. In some areas,

the entire plants are pulled up and laid out to dry. Hand cutting, one man can

cut about one-fifth hectare per day. Sometimes specially designed harvesters

with a tractor are able to harvest four hectares a day. In many areas several

varieties of hemp are grown so as to spread out the harvest, one maturing in

late July and used later for seed crop in September, a second crop maturing in

mid August, and a third maturing near end of August. Fiber is extracted from

the stems of hemp by retting by methods similar to those used for other fiber

plants. Sometimes the stems are dried before they are retted. After plants

have air-dried for 4-6 days, the root and flower ends are cut off and the

remaining portions, with branches and leaves taken or beaten off, are made into

small bundles. For retting, 15-20 of these smaller bundles are made into

larger bundles. In other areas stalks are not dried before retting, green

stems, after roots and flower ends have been cut off, are made into bundles,

and retted immediately. Hemp can be water retted, dew retted, or snow retted,

according to the climatic conditions. The retted hemp stalks consist of fiber

in the outer rind and a woody interior portion. Fiber is separated from the

stalk by a breaking process. Stalks are dried after retting and the woody

shive is broken into short pieces called hurds. Eventually the fibers are

separated from the interior woody pieces by scutching by passing the bundles

through a number of fluted rollers and then past large revolving drums with

projecting bars which remove any remaining pieces of wood. Machines are able

to handle 3-3.5 MT dried straw every hour, producing 0.4-0.5 MT of cleaned

fiber.

Yields and Economics

Yields of hemp per hectare depend on climatic conditions, variety grown, soil

and nutrition, and spacing of plants in the field. Weight of dried stems per

hectare is usually between 4.5 to 7.5 T, with a yield of fiber about 25% of the

dried stalks. Usually the taller the plant, the longer will be the fiber with

a greater yield per plant. In some areas fiber yields of 850- 1,700 kg/ha

compared to 1,300-1,700 kg/ha seed and 30 kg ganja. The U.S.S.R. is the

largest producer of hemp in the world, producing about 33% of hemp fiber,

annually 105,000 MT compared to the world production of 255,000 MT (excepting

China). France and West Germany are the chief importers, Italy and Yugoslavia

exporters. Chile, China, Japan and Peru also produce hemp. Narcotic

production is usually clandestine, but there is legal marijuana production in

India. India is the main producer and exporter of oil from the seed.

Energy

In India, plants remaining in the field after harvesting for fiber are allowed

to set seed. They are cut after the fruits are ripened and dried and threshed

for seed collection. Grown solely for seeds, an average crop yields 1.3 to 1.6

MT/ha seed. The world low production yield was 288 kg/ha in Democratic

People's Republic of Korea, the international production yield was 613 kg/ha,

and the world high production yield was 3,842 kg/ha in People's Republic of

China.

Biotic Factors

Among diseases of Cannibis are: Botryosphaeria marconii (stem

canker, wilt), Botrytis cinerea (gray mold), Cylindrosporium sp.

(leaf spot), Fusarium sp. (canker, stem rot), Gibberella saubinetii

(stem rot), Hypomyces cancri (?root rot), Macrophominia phaseoli,

Phomopsis cannabina, Phymatotrichum omivorum (root rot), Sclerotinia

sclerotiorum (stem rot, wilt), Sclerotium rolfsii (southern blight),

Septoria cannabis (leaf spot). Nematodes include: Ditylenchus

dipsaci, Heterodera humuli, Longidorus maximus, Meloidogyne hapla, M.

incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. spp., and Pratylenchus coffeae

(Golden, p.c., 1984). Occasionally Orobanche ramosa is

paratitic on the roots.

References

Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1-61. In: ASA Special

Symposium 32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions. Am. Soc. Agron.

Madison, WI.

Duke, J.A. 1979. Ecosystematic data on economic plants. Quart. J. Crude Drug

Res. 17(3-4):91-110.

C.S.I.R. (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1948-1976. The wealth

of India. 11 vols. New Delhi.

Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants

of southern and eastern Africa. 2nd ed. E. & S. Livingstone, Ltd., Edinburgh

and London.

 

Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops

 

Last update July 3, 1996

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