Article: Research and development of the shea tree and its products

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Research and development of the shea tree and its products

 

Location:

 

Bole, Ghana

 

Summary:

Research by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) into the cultivation

and processing of shea nuts as an alternative to cocoa products.

 

Problem Overview:

 

Ghana is a developing country with a low-income economy where over 80% of the

population lives in abject poverty. The natural resources, especially the

mineral resources such as the gold, diamond, bauxite, manganese etc. of the

country are concentrated in the mid-southern regions. Because of the uneven

distribution of these resources, all development such as industry, roads,

electricity, potable water, schools and hospitals has been concentrated in these

regions. Only a few settlements had electricity in the northern sector until the

Rawlings government embarked on extensive nation-wide electrification in 1989.

 

The imbalances in the distribution of development were due in part to the nature

of colonisation that took place in the 17th century and in part to the political

dispensation that prevailed in the country after independence. The northern

sector of the country covers approximately 2/3 of the country’s land space and

has virtually no natural endowment. This sector was therefore left out in all

development activity, including basic infrastructure provision. Exacerbating

this situation, the area lies in the dry Sudan and Sahelian savannahs where

rainfall is incredibly low, erratic and unpredictable. The people here are

subsistence farmers who depend on rain-fed agriculture for the production of

food crops. The crops they produce are mainly yam, cassava, maize, rice, beans

(cowpea), groundnuts, cotton and recently cashew. Part of the crops harvested is

sold in the markets to generate income to meet individual domestic financial

needs. The bulk of the farm crop is used to meet household food needs. Cropping

is also seasonal since it depends on rainfall. There is only one season of

rainfall in this region and so cropping is once a year. Also, the incomes are

very seasonal and once a year. Consequently, the populations here are extremely

poor and women are particularly worse off because they are the ones responsible

for domestic protein supply. When men go to the farms they bring in food crops

for consumption while women have to supply meat and other family needs from

their personal funds.

 

The combined effect of the interplay of the above factors is frequent food

shortages, poverty amongst the women, disease and rapid depopulation of the

area. Young people, including young women, drift to the southern sector in

search of better living conditions and jobs. This mass movement of people from

the north to the south has caused most of public facilities to breakdown and has

given rise to serious demographic problems both for the northern and the

southern regions of the country and has also resulted in severe economic

disparities between the northern and southern populations. As an appropriate

response to the plights of the women in northern Ghana, both governmental and

non-governmental organizations began to look for local resources that could be

developed to generate income for the women.

 

The shea tree, whose fruits were already used by the women to generate

substantial income to support their domestic needs, was therefore the most ideal

candidate to rely upon. The importance of the shea tree in Ghana’s economy

became even more significant with the need to find substitutes for cocoa in the

confectionery and cocoa butter industry in the early 1970s. This led to the

establishment CRIG sub-station in 1976 at the northern town of Bole, by the

Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board (GCMB), in collaboration with the CRIG. It also

contributed to the formation of the Non-Formal Education Division (NFED) of the

ministry of education and the 31st December Women’s Moment in an effort to

empower rural women in Ghana, which succeeded in organizing the women into

co-operative societies or community based women’s groups in the three regions

of northern Ghana. These organizations provide the co-operative societies with

loan and credit facilities at very moderate rates payable on an extended period

to enable individuals to cope with repayment terms. This initiative has, in the

medium-term, alleviated poverty amongst the rural women and, in the long-term,

provides continuous employment opportunities for rural women and young people.

 

The research station, apart from providing job opportunities for researchers,

has provided avenues for increased production of shea nut yields. Consequently,

shea nut output, for both export and local consumption, has increased

tremendously over the last ten years.

 

Background:

 

Summary:

 

In recent years the shea tree has gained importance as an economic crop because

of the heavy demand for its butter, both locally and internationally. In

recognition of the need to find substitutes for the rather expensive cocoa

products, and to maximize economic exploitation of the vast shea resource in

Ghana, the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) initiated scientific

research into the cultivation and processing of shea nuts. This led to the

creation of a subsidiary research station of the CRIG in 1976 at Bole, Northern

Ghana. The sole responsibility of this substation is to research into the

ecology and biology of the shea tree with the aim of improving its yield. This

article surveys the shea industry in Ghana as a whole and looks at the various

aspects of butter production, from the point of fruit collection, through to

marketing the product and uses. A little of the shea tree biology is included

and the distribution of the shea tree in Africa is described, including the

various environmental and ecological conditions under which the shea tree

thrives. A description of the morphology and physiognomy of the tree is given

for those who have not seen it. The collection of the nut and the process of

extraction of the butter in Ghana are described. I have included salient

information on the shea in neighbouring sub-Saharan African countries. A review

is made of the problems facing the shea industry in general.

 

The shea tree, formerly Butryospermum paradoxum, is now called Vitellaria

paradoxa. Many vernacular names are used for Vitellaria, which is a reflection

of its extensive range of occurrence – nearly 5,000km from Senegal (west) to

Uganda (east) across the African Continent. The nomenclature history and

synonymy of the shea tree followed a very tortuous evolution since the oldest

specimen was first collected by Mungo Park on May 26, 1797 before eventually

arriving at the name vitellaria with subspecies paradoxa and nilotica. It

usually grows to an average height of about 15m with profuse branches and a

thick waxy and deeply fissured bark that makes it fire resistant. The shea tree

grows naturally in the wild in the dry Savannah belt of West Africa from Senegal

in the west to Sudan in the east, and onto the foothills of the Ethiopian

highlands. It occurs in 19 countries across the African continent, namely Benin,

Ghana, Chad, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Guinea

Bissau, Cote D’Ivoire, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan,

Togo Uganda, Zaire and Guinea. In Ghana (FAO, 1988a), it occurs extensively in

the Guinea savannah and less abundantly in the Sudan Savannah. The shea tree

occurs over almost the entire area of Northern Ghana, over about 77,670 square

kilometers in Western Dagomba, Southern Mamprusi, Western Gonja, Lawra, Tumu, Wa

and Nanumba with Eastern Gonja having the densest stands. There is sparse shea

tree cover found in Brong-Ahafo, Ashanti, and the Eastern and Volta regions in

the south of the country.

 

Considerable volumes of literature exist on the ecology of the shea tree

including its yield, especially by (Coull, 1928; Hill, 1930; & Dalzeil, 1937).

According to these authors, the trees are ravaged by annual bush-fires that

usually burn the undergrowth and cause stunted growth of the trees in the wild.

Under these conditions, the trees attain heights of only 6.1 meters and girths

of about 61cm. However, under protected conditions (e.g. on cultivated lands and

on the fringes of settlements) the trees can reach heights of about 15 meters

and girths of 175cm. The trees grow slowly from seeds, taking about 30 years to

reach maturity (Dalziel, 1937), but limiting or stressful conditions such as

bush-fires and harsh weather can reduce this. The shea tree has no capacity for

vegetative regeneration and can only be propagated by seed.

 

The shea tree also has a great, untapped capacity for producing copious amounts

of sap that can constitute an important source of raw material for the gum and

rubber industry. The trees begin to bear fruits at maturity and start flowering

by early November, with picking or gathering lasting from April to August every

year. When the shea fruits ripen, they fall under their own weight to the floor

and are gathered by hand. The fruit, which is green in color, has a fleshy

edible pulp, which contains 0.7-1.3g of protein and 41.2g of carbohydrate and is

very sweet. The fruit pulp is a particularly rich source of ascorbic acid:

196.1mg/100g compared with 50mg/100g in oranges. The iron and calcium content

compares favorably with raspberries: 1.93mg/100g as against 0.92mg/100g for

iron, and 36.4mg/100g as against 26mg/100g for calcium. (FAO, 1988b), reports

that B vitamins are also present. The sugar content varies from 3-6%, equally

distributed between glucose, fructose and sucrose.

 

Basically an occupation for rural women and children, the shea business was

previously, a largely opportunistic trade, with little or no organization at

community level. Men do not participate in shea nut gathering and regard this as

the preserve of women and children. It is called an “opportunistic businessâ€

because no one has ownership rights over the trees and gathering is equally open

to all. The owners of farms and old, abandoned farms maintain the right to

harvest their trees. The fruit is also an important source of food for many

organisms, including birds and bats. In northern Ghana the fruits contribute to

food security, particularly for the rural poor, especially since their ripening

coincides with the lean season of food production. The decline in cocoa

production in the early 70s necessitated the maximization of the economic

exploitation of the vast cocoa resources and the search for substitutes. The

Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board (GCMB) in collaboration with the CRIG therefore took

on the responsibility to conduct scientific research into the cultivation and

processing of shea nuts. The result of this effort was the establishment of a

branch of CRIG at Bole, Northern Ghana, in 1976, whose primary concern was to

research shea production including improvement in tree yields and variety, and

conservation.

 

1.0 GATHERING

 

In Ghana women pick shea fruits from their husbands’ plots, and the oldest

wife regulates the activity and is responsible for the allocation of farmlands

of husband among wives in polygamous marriages (Grigsby & Force, 1993). Fallow

or abandoned plots are destined for the wives of the previous owners, whilst

uncultivated plots are open to all women. Pickers wake early in the morning and

trek up to 15km, then carry the loads back in head pans of 20-25kg (sometimes

over 40kg). Hazards include scorpions and snakes, especially beyond cultivated

areas (Schrechenberg, 1996).

 

In northern Burkina Faso, land rights are acquired through relatives tending

previously cultivated land or spontaneous clearing, but also by requesting

uncultivated plots from the village Chief. In Mali, every one in the village is

allowed to collect from crop fields, regardless of who owns them (Gakou et al.,

1994).

 

 

1.1 VILLAGE PROCESSING

 

After gathering, shea nuts are par-boiled and sun-dried before storing in order

to prepare the nuts for shelling. The shelling process involves the removal of

the hard shell protecting the kernel. The kernel is the part that is of interest

to the shea butter maker. After shelling, the oil-containing portion is

thoroughly sun-dried for 3-5 days and a final baking process completely

dehydrates it. The essence of the baking process is to concentrate the oil in

the kernel, after which the nut can be stored for several years without danger

of spoilage. The baking or roasting of the nut is also necessary to cause latex

coagulation. The shea butter processing procedure is quite tedious and time

consuming. From collection of the shea fruits through to the production of the

final product, it is estimated that the production of 1kg of shea butter takes

one person 20-30 hours and that 8.5-10.0kg of wood fuel is needed to produce it

(Niess, 1988). This means that energy input is quite high. No estimates exist of

the overall balance between cost of input energy and the economic profit from

the sale of shea butter.

 

 

1.2 IMPROVED VILLAGE PROCESSING

 

The traditional oil extraction technique of shea butter is time consuming,

physically exhausting and requires large quantities of fuel wood and water;

resources that are often scarce in the regions where the butter is produced. In

general, it is also inefficient in terms of the amount of fat extracted.

 

The Dagomba women of Ghana were among the first to initiate the mechanization of

the butter extraction process. They adapted a corn mill to grind roasted shea

nuts. Other inventions include a kneading machine, grinders, a hydraulic hand

press, solar dryers (locally made wooden drying machines), and a heater and

mixer. Some of these inventions have achieved extraction efficiencies of 60% to

85%. An added advantage associated with using solar dryers, for example, is that

they check the activity of Aspergillus fungi and Euphenestia caufella larvae,

even during long-term storage.

 

 

2.0 TREATMENT

 

The shea fruits gathered from wild contain a lot of materials whose removal is

required in order that the oil can be extracted from the kernel. Pre-treatment

of the fruits is therefore necessary to render suitable for the oil extraction

process.

 

2.1 DE-PULPING

 

De-pulping is the removal of the fleshy mesocarp. Initial fermentation

facilitates this process. Also initial boiling or burying the fruits enhances

the fermentation process.

 

2.2 DRYING OF NUTS

 

Sun drying for 5-10 days reduces the moisture content to about 15-30%. The

drying process takes several days at temperatures below 50°C and 4-5days at a

temperature of 50°C, leaving the moisture content of the kernel at between 6-7%

(Greenwood, 1929). The drying process facilitates de-husking, which is the

process employed to remove the hard shell or coat covering endoderm containing

the oil.

 

2.3 DE-HUSKING

 

A variety of methods are used to remove the husks. These include trampling

(Salunkhe et al., 1992), pounding using a mortar and pestle, and cracking

between two stones.

 

3.0 THE BUTTER EXTRACTION PROCESS

 

The first stage of butter extraction involves grinding the baked kernel into a

powdery material or flour, which is then mixed with warm or lukewarm water. The

resulting semi-solid mixture is then stirred continuously or kneaded into a

paste. The paste is allowed to stand, with the oil floating on top of the

supernatant and decanted periodically, leaving a brown solid residue devoid of

oil (basically an amorphous matrix), which settles to the bottom. This residue,

however, has only very little or no economic value.

 

The extraction process, which is the final stage of oil production, involves a

series of step-wise activities to yield the final oil product and the following

are the activities involved.

 

3.1 DRYING AND SMOKING OF KERNELS

 

Inactivation of enzymes responsible for the build-up of fatty acids is achieved

through drying or baking of the karite kernel and, in addition, it prevents the

growth of fungi (e.g. Aspergillus sp.). The moisture content in the kernel must

be less than 7%, for safe storage. At moisture content of about 7%, the kernel

could be stored for up to 2 years. The baking process must be controlled in such

a way as to prevent charring of the kernel, a condition that reduces the fat

content.

 

3.2 POUNDING AND GRINDING

 

Pounding and grinding is done in large wooden mortars, between a stone and an

iron bar, or using a stone and a wooden roller. The product may be heated either

during or after this process.

 

3.3 MIXING WITH WATER, TREATING, KNEADING AND CHURNING

 

Kneading is the most crucial step in determining the quality of the shea butter

finally produced. Its success depends on the recognition of changes in

temperature, consistency and appearance. These qualities can only be assessed

correctly with experience.

 

3.4 FLOATING, WASHING AND REFINING

 

Small amounts of dough are worked with fingers in cold water. This vigorous

mixing breaks the emulsion, causing a grey, oily scum to rise. In Ghana, adding

the juice of Ceratotheca (a small savanna plant) to the boiling pot accelerates

the rate of separation of the butter. The juice promotes flocculation of the

suspension and hastens sedimentation of the heavier non-oil residue. The oil is

skimmed and washed repeatedly in a basin with clean water to eliminate residues

and is then made into balls. Melting and boiling the solid fat in a pot until it

is clear and bubbly clarifies the butter. The fat is then poured into a basin

where it is left to solidify.

 

 

USES OF SHEA BUTTER

 

The shea nut serves as the main source of livelihood for the rural women and

children who are engaged in its gathering. Shea butter is the main edible oil

for the people of northern Ghana, being the most important source of fatty acids

and glycerol in their diet. It is an unguent for the skin. It also has

anti-microbial properties, which gives it a place in herbal medicine. It is also

used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as an important raw material

and/or a precursor for the manufacture of soaps, candles, and cosmetics. Shea

butter is used as a sedative or anodyne for the treatment of sprains,

dislocations and the relief of minor aches and pains. Other important uses

include its use as an anti-microbial agent for promotion of rapid healing of

wounds, as a pan-releasing agent in bread baking and as a lubricant for donkey

carts. Its by-products, the brown solid that is left after extracting the oil

and the hard protective shell, are used as a water-proofing material on the

walls of mud-buildings to protect them from the eroding forces of the wind and

rain. Poor quality butter is not only applied to earthen walls but also to

doors, windows, and even beehives as a waterproofing agent (Marchand, 1988). In

a traditional setting, shea butter of poor quality is used as an illuminant (or

fuel, in lamps or as candles).

 

 

TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS.

 

Oil has played an important part in the local economies in west and central

sub-Saharan Africa for centuries. It is reported that the initial traditional

roles have not changed significantly since 1830, when the French explorer Roger

Caillie described them during his trek across West Africa. In Roger Caillie’s

own words as reported in Hall et al., 1996, “the indigenous people trade with

it, they eat it and rub their bodies with it; they also burn it to make light;

they assure me that it is a very beneficial remedy against aches and pains and

sores and wounds for which it is applied as an unguentâ€. Today the shea tree

produces the second most important oil crop in Africa after oil palm (Poulsen,

1981), but as it grows in areas unsuitable for palm, it takes on primary

importance in West Africa, and in regions where annual precipitation is less

than 1000mm of rainfall. However, it loses popularity in urban areas within

these regions due to the pungent odor it emits, should it become rancid (Ayeh,

1981b).

 

 

OTHER TRADITIONAL USES OF SHEA BUTTER

 

As a cosmetic, it is used as a moisturizer, for dressing hair (Dalziel, 1937,

Ezema & Ogujiofor, 1992) and for protection against the weather and sun. It is

used as a rub to relieve rheumatic and joint pains and is applied to activate

healing in wounds and in cases of dislocation, swelling and bruising. It is

widely used to treat skin problems such as dryness, sunburn, burns, ulcers and

dermatitis (Vuillet, 1911; Bonkoungou, 1987) and to massage pregnant women and

small children (Marchand, 1988).

 

Having a high melting point of between (32-45°C) and being close to body

temperature are attributes that make it particularly suitable as a base for

ointments and medicines (Bonkoungou, 1987). It is also used to treat horses

internally and externally for girth galls and other sores. The healing

properties of shea butter are believed to be partly attributable to the presence

of allantoin, a substance known to stimulate the growth of healthy tissue in

ulcerous wounds (Wallace-Bruce, 1995). It is used as “white oil†to anoint

the dead in Niger (Castinal, 1945), and is placed in traditional ritual shrines.

 

Refuse water from production of shea butter is used as a termite repellent

(Dalziel, 1937). In Burkina Faso, shea butter is used to protect against insect

(Callosobruchus maculatus) damage to cowpeas (Vigna sp.). Research has shown

that after treatment with shea butter a reduction occurs in the life span and

fertility of the insects and hence the infestation rate. Shea butter, however,

is not as effective as cottonseed or groundnut oil (Pereira, 1983; Owusu-Manu,

1991).

 

TRADITIONAL “NON-BUTTER†USES

 

The shea tree is sacred to many ethnic groups and plays an important role in

religious ceremonies (Vuillet, 1911; Millee, 1984).

 

FLOWERS, FRUIT AND NUTS

 

Some ethnic groups make the flowers into edible fritters (Chevalier, 1949). The

fruit pulp, being a valuable food source, is also taken for its slightly

laxative properties (Soladoye et al., 1989). Although not widespread, shea nut

cake is used for cattle feed (Salunkhe and Desai, 1986), and also eaten raw by

children (Faegri, 1966; Farinu, 1986). The residual meal, as in the case with

shea butter, is also used as a waterproofing agent to repair and mend cracks in

the exterior walls of mud huts, windows, doors and traditional beehives. The

sticky black residue, which remains after the clarification of the butter, is

used for filling cracks in hut walls (Greenwood, 1929; Marchand, 1988) and as a

substitute for kerosene when lighting firewood (Wallance-Bruce, 1995). The husks

reportedly make a good mulch and fertiliser (FAO, 1988b), and are also used as

fuel on three stone fires.

 

FOLIAGE

 

Leaves are used as medicine to treat stomachache in children (Millee, 1984). A

decoction of young leaves is used as a vapor bath for headaches in Ghana. The

leaves in water form a frothy opalescent liquid, with which the patient’s head

is bathed. A leaf decoction is also used as an eye bath (Abbiw, 1990; Louppe,

1994). The leaves are a source of saponin, which lathers in water and can be

used for washing (Abbiw, 1990). When a woman goes into labor, branches may be

hung in the doorway of her hut to protect the newborn baby. Branches may also be

used for covering the dead prior to their burial (Agbahungba & Depommier, 1989).

 

ROOTS

 

The roots are used as chewing sticks in Nigeria, most commonly in savannah areas

(Isawumi, 1978). Roots and root bark are ground to a paste and taken orally to

cure jaundice (Ampofo, 1983). These are also used for treatment of diarrhoea and

stomachache (Millee, 1984). Mixed with tobacco, the roots are used as a poison

by the Jukun of northern Nigeria. Chronic sores in horses are treated with

boiled and pounded root bark (Dalziel, 1937).

 

BARK

 

Infusions of the bark have shown to have selective anti-microbial properties, as

being effective against Sarcina lutha and Staphylococcus mureas but not

mycobacterium phlei (Malcolm & Sofowora, 1969). Macerated with the bark of Ceiba

pentandra, and salt, bark infusions have been used to treat cattle with worms in

the Tenda region of Senegal and Guinea (Ferry et al., 1974). The infusions have

been used to treat leprosy in Guinea Bissau (Dalziel, 1937) and for gastric

problems (Booth and Wickens, 1988) as well as for diarrhoea or dysentery

(Soladoye et al., 1989). A bark decoction is used in the Cote d’Ivoire in

baths and therapeutic sitz-baths to facilitate delivery of women in labour, and

is drunk to encourage lactation after delivery (Abbiw, 1990; Soladoye et al.,

1989; Louppe, 1994). However, in northern Nigeria such a concoction is said to

be lethal, (Dalziel, 1937).

 

A bark infusion is used as an eyewash to neutralise the venom of the spitting

cobra (Soladoye et al 1989) and also, in Ghana, as a footbath to help extract

jiggers. Greenwood (1929) noted that the stripping of bark for medicinal

purposes may have a severe impact on the health of shea trees and may even be

fatal. The wood is only used when individual trees are not valued for butter

production. The latex is heated and mixed with palm oil to make glue (Hall et

al., 1996). It is chewed as a gum and made into balls for children to play with

(Louppe, 1994). In Burkina Faso, Bobo musicians use it to repair cracked drums

and punctured drumheads (Millee, 1984). It contains only 15-25% of carotene and,

therefore, is not suitable for the manufacture of rubber (André, 1947a,b).

 

MISTLETOE

 

Millee (1984) comments that Tapinanthus globiterns, one of the shea tree’s

most common parasitic plants, has many medicinal purposes but gives no details.

It is also used extensively in apiculture.

 

INDUSTRIAL USES

 

Research into the properties and potential industrial uses of shea butter began

in the first few decades of the last century. Previously, it was used in edible

fats and margarine, e.g. Oleine®, and was only beginning to attract the soap

and perfume industry when interest ceased because of the 2nd World War. Revival

of the shea industry after the war suffered serious setbacks from an

insufficient pricing mechanism, logistical problems of transport (low

availability and unpredictable) unable to cope with the supply of the nuts, thus

making the ventures economically non-viable. During the mid 1960s shea trade

re-emerged when Japanese traders joined their European counterparts, which saw a

considerable expansion of the industry, particularly in the cosmetics and

confectionery industry barely a decade thereafter.

 

Shea butter has several industrial applications, but the majority of kernels

(approximately 95%) provide an important raw material for Cocoa Butter Replacers

(CBRs), and are used for manufacturing chocolate and other confectionery. Minor

uses include cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The export market for CBRs is shared

by Unilever (UK), Arhus (Denmark), Fuji Itoh and Kaneka-Mitsubishi (Japan) and

Karlsham (Sweden). A detailed account of general physical properties and

composition of fatty acids (%) of shea butter is presented in Hall et al., 1996.

 

OTHER USES

 

Shea tree seed husks have a capacity to remove considerable amounts of heavy

metal ions from aqueous solutions, for example from wastewater. These were found

to be more effective than the melon seed husks for absorption of Pb (II) ions

(Fleury, 1981; Eromosele & Otitolaye, 1994). The need to identify additional

sources of feed, to expand the animal industry for protein supply in Ghana, led

to research into the potential for greater use of agro-based industrial

by-products, such as Shea Nut Cake (SNC), in the formulation of animal feeds

(Fleury, 1981; Hall et al., 1996).

 

IMPLEMENTATION STATUS

 

Research activities have focused on increasing fruit yield per hectare of land.

Studies in the early 1920s were geared towards the development of an export

trade in shea nuts and hence concentrated on the logistics of distribution.

Efforts were therefore concentrated on increasing and improving upon the

existing infrastructure by building railways in the mid-regions of the country.

 

Research and field trials on many plots, under different spacing regimes, have

indicated that the optimum spacing of shea trees for hastening maturity and

improving yield per hectare is 10 x 10 meters. This represents an equivalent

plant population of 100 trees per hectare or 4 trees per acre. Another method

adopted by the CRIG sub-station in Bole, with the aim of increasing

productivity, is transplantation from polythene bags. This method increases the

initial growth rate and shortens the length of the period between germination

and transplantation. The station adopted a bio-zyme that stimulates vegetative

growth and promotes early maturation. The station has also tested a surrogate

grafting method, resulting in the production of new varieties of early and high

yielding trees. The method involves choosing only high yielding trees,

selectively cutting branches of 2 – 6cm in girth and removing 1.5 – 2.0cm

sections of the bark off the branches, leaving the woody tissue. The cutting is

done 6 – 15cm from the top of the branches. The sections are then covered with

small quantities of a mixture of moistened soil and palm fiber (which act as a

root support medium) contained in a polythene bag and secured carefully in place

with a binding tape. This allows rapid sprouting and improves yield

considerably.

 

With considerable success, the research station has investigated vegetative

propagation using high-yielding trees. Branches of girths between 2 – 3cm in

diameter of these high-yielding trees were cut and immersed in water until the

wounds heal and outgrowths develop. These outgrowths are then planted on

prepared soils and allowed to sprout under intensive care. Field observations

show that plants produced through this technique grow faster and have a

potential of fruiting earlier than those germinated from seeds. Since trees from

such vegetative propagation are smaller in size than those growing from seeds,

the optimum spacing for the vegetatively propagated trees is 7 x 7 meters, to

allow for higher number of trees per hectare, and higher initial and overall

fruit/seed yields (Dakwa, 1985; Frimpong & Adomako, 1987; Tawiah, 1994; Yidana,

1994).

 

Natural regeneration is the single most important and commonly used procedure by

the research station to increase productivity in recent times. Field observation

has revealed that on lands protected from bush fires, with minimal use of heavy

equipment (e.g. ploughing with tractors), numerous young shea trees sprout from

existing old stumps. Where farmers, bush fires, or browsing animals do not

destroy these, they grow rapidly into mature trees, producing fruits after only

seven years instead of the normal 12 to 15 years (Yidana, 1994). Farmers have

been educated accordingly, and evidence indicates that they are relying on this

knowledge and practice to produce early maturing shea plantations. Plant

populations of 400 trees per hectare can be achieved by this conservation

technique.

 

Through applied research, the station also found that introducing grazing

animals into shea tree plantations improves shea nut yields. The station has

therefore designed and initiated extension programs to educate farmers on the

use of a combination of these techniques to achieve greater yields. Since the

establishment of the research station at Bole in northern Ghana, there have been

increased shea nut yields per capita per annum. Another positive management

option adopted by the station was careful tending to enhance the productivity of

parkland trees and the greater protection of naturally regenerating seedlings to

enrich ageing parkland, which avoids the burden of nursery costs and problems

associated with planting out.

 

Systematic measures considered were:

 

The felling of dead or diseased trees;

Maintaining a weed-free circle as a firebreak around each tree;

Application of manure to the base of young trees to stimulate growth; and

Pruning of mature trees

Pruning can be used also to achieve control of parasite plants such as

Tapinanthus sp. The efforts of the research station have led to increased crop

yield and total annual collection output.

 

 

Documentation:

 

Abbiw, D. (1990) The useful plants of Ghana. Intermediate Technology

Publications/Royal Botanic Gardens, London/Kew. 337pp.

 

Agbahungba, G. & Depommier, D. (1989) Aspects du parc à karités-nérés

(Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. f. parkia biglobosa Jacq. Benth.) dans le sud du

Borgou (Bénin). Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 222: 41-54.

 

Ampofo, O. (1983) First aid in plant medicine. Ghana rural reconstruction

movement, Yentsi Centre, Mampong.

 

André (1947) Le beure de karité. Sa composition chimique, latex et graisse.

Oléagineux, 11: 546-551; 599-603.

 

Ayeh, F. Y. O. (1981a) Solar drying of shea nuts. Cocoa Research Institute,

Ghana, Annual Report 1988/89: 121

 

Ayeh, F. Y. O. (1981b) Effect of dye on rancid shea butter. Cocoa Research

Institute, Ghana, Annual Report 1988/89: 124

 

Bonkoungou, E.G. (1987) Monographie du karité, Butyrospermum paradoxum (Gaertn.

f.) Hepper, espèce agroforestière à usages multiples. Institute de la

Researche en Biologie et Ecologie Tropicale, Centre National de la Researche

Scientifique et Technologique, Ougadougou. 69pp.

 

Booth, F. E. M. and Wickens, G. E. (1988) Non-timber uses of selected arid zone

trees and shrubs in Africa. FAO Conservation guide, 19: 1-176

 

Castinel, J. (1945) Le mariage et la mort dans la règion du Yanga (Cercle de N.

Gourma, Colonie du Niger). Bulletin de l’Institut Française d’Afrique

Noire, 7: 148-153.

 

Chevalier, A. (1949) Nouvelles researches sur l’arbre à beurre du Soudan.

Revue Internationale de Botanique Appliquèe et d’Agriculture Tropicale, 28:

241-256.

 

Coull, G. C. (1928) Distribution and yields of shea butter nut trees in the

northern territories. Yearbook of the Gold Coast, Department of Agriculture,

1927: 130-137.

 

Dakwa, J. T. (1985) Shea nut Disease: Pestalolia Leaf spot (Annual Report, Cocoa

Research Institute of Ghana, CRIG).

 

Dalziel, J. M. (1937) Useful Plants of West Africa. Crown Agents, London. 612pp.

 

Eromosele, I. C. & Otitolaye, O. O. (1994) Binding of iron, zinc and lead ions

from aqueous solution by shea butter (Butyrospermum pakii) seed husks. Bulletin

of Environmental contamination and Toxicology, 52: 530-537.

 

Ezema, D. O. & Ogujiofor, K. O. (1992) The evolution of Butyrospermum paradoxum

as a suppository base. International Journal of pharmacognosy, 30: 275-280.

 

Faegri, K. (1966) Some problems representativity in pollen analysis.

Palaeobotanist, 15: 135-140.

 

FAO (1988a) Appendix 5, Forest genetic resource priorities. 10. Africa. Report

of Sixth Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, held in

Rome, Italy, December 8-11, 1985, pp 86-89. FAO, Rome. 79pp.

 

FAO (1988b) Traditional food plants. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, 42: 1-593.

 

Farinu, G. O. (1986) Technical Note-Chemical composition of some plant products

of the savanna forest zone of Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 22: 325-320.

 

Ferry, M. P.; Gessain, M. & Geeain, R. (1974) Ethnobotanique Tenda. Documents du

Centre de Reserches Anthropologiques du museé de l’Homme, Paris.

 

Fleury, F. M. (1981) The Butter Tree, IDRC Reports 10: 6-9.

 

Frimpong, E. B. & Adomako, D. (1989) Vegetative Propagation of Shea, kola and

Pentadesma. Cocoa Research Institute, Ghana. Annual Report 1987/88: 98-100.

 

Gakou, M.; Force, J. E. and McLaughlin, W. J. (1994) Non-timber forest products

in rural Mali: a study of village use. Agroforestry systems, 28: 213-226.

 

Greenwood, M. (1929) Shea nuts and shea butter. Bulletin of the Agricultural

Department, Nigeria, 1929: 59-100.

 

Grigsby, W. J. & Force, J. E. (1993) Where credit is due, Forests, women and

rural development. Journal of Forestry, 91: 29-34.

 

Hall, J. B.; Aebischer, D. P.; Tomlinson, H. F; Osei-Amaning, E. & Hindle, J. R.

(1996) Vitellaria paradoxa: A monograph. School of Agricultural and Forest

Sciences Publication no. 8. University of Wales, Bangor. 105pp.

 

Hill, H. L. (1930) The Shea Tree in the Northern Territories. Year book of the

Gold Coast Department of Agriculture, 1929: 226-238.

 

Isawumi, M. A. (1978) Nigerian chewing sticks. Nigerian field, 43: 50-58.

 

Louppe, D. (1994) Le karité en Côte d’Ivoire. Centre de Coopération

Internationale en Reserche Agronomique pour le Development, Montpellier. 28pp.

 

Malcolm, S. A. & Sofowora, E. A. (1969) Antimicrobial activity of selected

Nigerian folk remedies and their constituent plants. Lloydia, 32: 512-517.

 

Marchand, D. (1988) Extracting profit with a shea butter press. International

Development Research Reports, 17: 14-15.

 

Millee, J. K. (1984) Secondary products of species native to the Dinderesso

Forest Reserve, Forestry Education and Development Project USAID, Ouagadougou.

 

Niess, T. (1988) Technologie approprieé pour les femmes des villages.

Développement de la presse à karité au Mali. Deutches Zentrum für

Entwicklungstechnologien, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit

vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig. 42pp.

 

Owusu-Manu, E. (1991) Shea Entomology, Insect Survey. CRIG, Annual Reports

1988/89: 70.

 

Pereira, J. (1983) The effectiveness of six vegetable oils as protectants of

cowpeas and bambara groundnuts against infestation by Callosobruchus maculatus

(F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Journal of Stored Produce Research, 19: 57-62.

 

Poulsen, G. (1981) Important forest products in Africa other than wood - a

preliminary study (Project Report RAF/78/025). FAO, Rome.

 

 

Salunkhe, D.K. and Desai, B.B. (1986) Postharvest biotechnology of oilseeds.

CRC, Boca Raton. 264pp.

 

Salunkhe, D.K.; Chavan, J.K.; Adsule, R.N. & Kadam, S.S (1992) World oilseeds.

Chemistry, technology and utilization. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 554pp.

 

Schrechenberg, K. (1996) Forests, fields and markets: a study of indigenous tree

products in the woody savannahs of the Bassila region, Benin, PhD thesis,

University of London. 326pp.

 

Soladoye, M.O.; Orhiere, S.S. & Ibimode, B.M. (1989) Ethnobotanical study of two

indigenous multipurpose plants in the Guinea savanna of Kwara state - Vitellaria

paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa. Biennial Conference of the Ecological Society of

Nigeria, 14th August 1989, Forestry Research Institute, Ibadan. 13pp.

 

Tawiah, A. (1994) Rural Women’s Group Exports of Shea-butter. Daily Graphic,

Monday June, 27, 1994.

 

Vuillet, J. (1911) Le karité et ses produits. Larose, Paris. 150pp.

 

Wallace-Bruce, Y. (1995) Shea butter extraction in Ghana, pp. 157-161. In: Do It

Herself. Women and technical innovation. (Ed. by H. Appleton), pp. 157-161.

Intermediate Technology Publications, London. 310pp.

 

 

Yidana, J. A. (1994) Pollination in shea trees. Cocoa Research Institute, Ghana,

Annual Report 1992/93.

 

Submitted by:

 

Julius Najah Fobil

Faculty of Science

P. O. Box 71

University of Ghana

Legon, Accra

GHANA

 

Contacts:

 

Charles Alhassan Kipo

BNI Head Office

P. O. Box 2236

Accra

GHANA

Tel: +233-21-221808

 

 

D. K. Abbiw

Department of Botany

University of Ghana

P. O. Box 55

Legon, Accra.

GHANA

Tel: 233-21-500300

Email: botany

 

 

D. K. Attuquayefio

Department of Zoology

P. O. Box 67

University of Ghana

Legon, Accra.

GHANA.

Tel: +233-24-548118

Email: zoology

 

 

E. Adomako

Department of Botany

P. O. Box 55

University of Ghana

Legon, Accra.

GHANA

Tel: 233-21-500318

Email: botany

 

 

Information 2002-04-01

Information Source: University of Ghana/CRIG Substation at Bole