Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true history of

August 24, 2006

http://www.newstarget.com/019189.html

Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true

history of modern medicine and psychiatry (1833-1965)

Posted Monday, March 06, 2006 by Dani Veracity

Introduction by the Health Ranger: The United States claims to be the

world leader in medicine. But there's a dark side to western medicine

that few want to acknowledge: The horrifying medical experiments

performed on impoverished people and their children all in the name of

scientific progress. Many of these medical experiments were conducted

on people without their knowledge, and most were conducted as part of

an effort to seek profits from newly approved drugs or medical

technologies.

Today, the medical experiments continue on the U.S. population and its

children. From the mass drugging of children diagnosed with fictitious

behavioral disorders invented by psychiatry to the FDA's approval of

mass-marketed drugs that have undergone no legitimate clinical trials,

our population is right now being subjected to medical experiments on

a staggering scale. Today, nearly 50% of Americans are on a least one

prescription drug, and nearly 20% of schoolchildren are on

mind-altering amphetamines like Ritalin or antidepressants like

Prozac. This mass medication of our nation is, in every way, a grand

medical experiment taking place right now.

But to truly understand how this mass experimentation on modern

Americans came into being, you have to take a close look at the

horrifying history of conventional medicine's exploitation of people

for cruel medical experiments.

WARNING: What you are about to read is truly shocking. You have never

been told this information by the American Medical Association, nor

drug companies, nor the evening news. You were never taught the truth

about conventional medicine in public school, or even at any

university. This is the dark secret of the U.S. system of medicine,

and once you read the true accounts reported here, you may never trust

drug companies again. These images are deeply disturbing. We print

them here not as a form of entertainment, but as a stern warning

against what might happen to us and our children if we do not rein in

the horrifying, inhumane actions of Big Pharma and modern-day psychiatry.

Now, I introduce this shocking timeline, researched and authored by

Dani Veracity, one of our many talented staff writers here at Truth

Publishing.

present-day Big Pharma

Read at your own risk. - The Health Ranger

The true U.S. history of human medical experimentation

Human experimentation -- that is, subjecting live human beings to

science experiments that are sometimes cruel, sometimes painful,

sometimes deadly and always a risk -- is a major part of U.S. history

that you won't find in most history or science books. The United

States is undoubtedly responsible for some of the most amazing

scientific breakthroughs. These advancements, especially in the field

of medicine, have changed the lives of billions of people around the

world -- sometimes for the better, as in the case of finding a cure

for malaria and other epidemic diseases, and sometimes for the worse

(consider modern " psychiatry " and the drugging of schoolchildren).

However, these breakthroughs come with a hefty price tag: The human

beings used in the experiments that made these advancements possible.

Over the last two centuries, some of these test subjects have been

compensated for the damage done to their emotional and physical

health, but most have not. Many have lost their lives because of the

experiments they often unwillingly and sometimes even unwittingly

participated in, and they of course can never be compensated for

losing their most precious possession of all: Their health.

As you read through these science experiments, you'll learn the

stories of newborns injected with radioactive substances, mentally ill

people placed in giant refrigerators, military personnel exposed to

chemical weapons by the very government they served and mentally

challenged children being purposely infected with hepatitis. These

stories are facts, not fiction: Each account, no matter how

horrifying, is backed up with a link or citation to a reputable source.

These stories must be heard because human experimentation is still

going on today. The reasons behind the experiments may be different,

but the usual human guinea pigs are still the same -- members of

minority groups, the poor and the disadvantaged. These are the lives

that were put on the line in the name of " scientific " medicine.

(1833)

Dr. William Beaumont, an army surgeon physician, pioneers gastric

medicine with his study of a patient with a permanently open gunshot

wound to the abdomen and writes a human medical experimentation code

that asserts the importance of experimental treatments, but also lists

requirements stipulating that human subjects must give voluntary,

informed consent and be able to end the experiment when they want.

Beaumont's Code lists verbal, rather than just written, consent as

permissible (Berdon).

(1845)

(1845 - 1849) J. Marion Sims, later hailed as the " father of

gynecology, " performs medical experiments on enslaved African women

without anesthesia. These women would usually die of infection soon

after surgery. Based on his belief that the movement of newborns'

skull bones during protracted births causes trismus, he also uses a

shoemaker's awl, a pointed tool shoemakers use to make holes in

leather, to practice moving the skull bones of babies born to enslaved

mothers (Brinker).

(1895)

New York pediatrician Henry Heiman infects a 4-year-old boy whom he

calls " an idiot with chronic epilepsy " with gonorrhea as part of a

medical experiment ( " Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and

After " ).

(1896)

Dr. Arthur Wentworth turns 29 children at Boston's Children's Hospital

into human guinea pigs when he performs spinal taps on them, just to

test whether the procedure is harmful (Sharav).

(1900)

U.S Army doctors working in the Philippines infect five Filipino

prisoners with plague and withhold proper nutrition to create Beriberi

in 29 prisoners; four test subjects die (Merritte, et al.; Cockburn

and St. Clair, eds.). Related article

Human medical experimentation in the United States: The shocking true

history of modern medicine and psychiatry (1965-2005)

Under commission from the U.S. surgeon general, Dr. Walter Reed goes

to Cuba and uses 22 Spanish immigrant workers to prove that yellow

fever is contracted through mosquito bites. Doing so, he introduces

the practice of using healthy test subjects, and also the concept of a

written contract to confirm informed consent of these subjects. While

doing this study, Dr. Reed clearly tells the subjects that, though he

will do everything he can to help them, they may die as a result of

the experiment. He pays them $100 in gold for their participation,

plus $100 extra if they contract yellow fever (Berdon, Sharav).

(1906)

Harvard professor Dr. Richard Strong infects prisoners in the

Philippines with cholera to study the disease; 13 of them die. He

compensates survivors with cigars and cigarettes. During the Nuremberg

Trials, Nazi doctors cite this study to justify their own medical

experiments (Greger, Sharav).

(1911)

Dr. Hideyo Noguchi of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

publishes data on injecting an inactive syphilis preparation into the

skin of 146 hospital patients and normal children in an attempt to

develop a skin test for syphilis. Later, in 1913, several of these

children's parents sue Dr. Noguchi for allegedly infecting their

children with syphilis ( " Reviews and Notes: History of Medicine:

Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the

Second World War " ).

(1913)

Medical experimenters " test " 15 children at the children's home St.

Vincent's House in Philadelphia with tuberculin, resulting in

permanent blindness in some of the children. Though the Pennsylvania

House of Representatives records the incident, the researchers are not

punished for the experiments ( " Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi

Era and After " ).

(1915)

Dr. Joseph Goldberger, under order of the U.S. Public Health Office,

produces Pellagra, a debilitating disease that affects the central

nervous system, in 12 Mississippi inmates to try to find a cure for

the disease. One test subject later says that he had been through " a

thousand hells. " In 1935, after millions die from the disease, the

director of the U.S Public Health Office would finally admit that

officials had known that it was caused by a niacin deficiency for some

time, but did nothing about it because it mostly affected poor

African-Americans. During the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi doctors used this

study to try to justify their medical experiments on concentration

camp inmates (Greger; Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

(1918)

In response to the Germans' use of chemical weapons during World War

I, President Wilson creates the Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) as a

branch of the U.S. Army. Twenty-four years later, in 1942, the CWS

would begin performing mustard gas and lewisite experiments on over

4,000 members of the armed forces (Global Security, Goliszek).

(1919)

(1919 - 1922) Researchers perform testicular transplant experiments on

inmates at San Quentin State Prison in California, inserting the

testicles of recently executed inmates and goats into the abdomens and

scrotums of living prisoners (Greger).

(1931)

Cornelius Rhoads, a pathologist from the Rockefeller Institute for

Medical Research, purposely infects human test subjects in Puerto Rico

with cancer cells; 13 of them die. Though a Puerto Rican doctor later

discovers that Rhoads purposely covered up some of details of his

experiment and Rhoads himself gives a written testimony stating he

believes that all Puerto Ricans should be killed, he later goes on to

establish the U.S. Army Biological Warfare facilities in Maryland,

Utah and Panama, and is named to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,

where he begins a series of radiation exposure experiments on American

soldiers and civilian hospital patients (Sharav; Cockburn and St.

Clair, eds.). Related article

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Chronic Illness (press release)

(1931 - 1933) Mental patients at Elgin State Hospital in Illinois are

injected with radium-266 as an experimental therapy for mental illness

(Goliszek).

(1932)

(1932-1972) The U.S. Public Health Service in Tuskegee, Ala. diagnoses

400 poor, black sharecroppers with syphilis but never tells them of

their illness nor treats them; instead researchers use the men as

human guinea pigs to follow the symptoms and progression of the

disease. They all eventually die from syphilis and their families are

never told that they could have been treated (Goliszek, University of

Virginia Health System Health Sciences Library).

(1937)

Scientists at Cornell University Medical School publish an angina drug

study that uses both placebo and blind assessment techniques on human

test subjects. They discover that the subjects given the placebo

experienced more of an improvement in symptoms than those who were

given the actual drug. This is first account of the placebo effect

published in the United States ( " Placebo Effect " ).

(1939)

In order to test his theory on the roots of stuttering, prominent

speech pathologist Dr. Wendell Johnson performs his famous " Monster

Experiment " on 22 children at the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home in

Davenport. Dr. Johnson and his graduate students put the children

under intense psychological pressure, causing them to switch from

speaking normally to stuttering heavily. At the time, some of the

students reportedly warn Dr. Johnson that, " in the aftermath of World

War II, observers might draw comparisons to Nazi experiments on human

subjects, which could destroy his career " (Alliance for Human Research

Protection).

(1941)

Dr. William C. Black infects a 12-month-old baby with herpes as part

of a medical experiment. At the time, the editor of the Journal of

Experimental Medicine, Francis Payton Rous, calls it " an abuse of

power, an infringement of the rights of an individual, and not

excusable because the illness which followed had implications for

science " (Sharav). Related article

Psychiatric Drugs: Chemical Warfare on Humans - interview with

Robert Whitaker

An article in a 1941 issue of Archives of Pediatrics describes

medical studies of the severe gum disease Vincent's angina in which

doctors transmit the disease from sick children to healthy children

with oral swabs (Goliszek).

Drs. Francis and Salk and other researchers at the University of

Michigan spray large amounts of wild influenza virus directly into the

nasal passages of " volunteers " from mental institutions in Michigan.

The test subjects develop influenza within a very short period of time

(Meiklejohn).

Researchers give 800 poverty-stricken pregnant women at a Vanderbilt

University prenatal clinic " cocktails " including radioactive iron in

order to determine the iron requirements of pregnant women (Pacchioli).

(1942)

The United States creates Fort Detrick, a 92-acre facility, employing

nearly 500 scientists working to create biological weapons and develop

defensive measures against them. Fort Detrick's main objectives

include investigating whether diseases are transmitted by inhalation,

digestion or through skin absorption; of course, these biological

warfare experiments heavily relied on the use of human subjects

(Goliszek).

U.S. Army and Navy doctors infect 400 prison inmates in Chicago with

malaria to study the disease and hopefully develop a treatment for it.

The prisoners are told that they are helping the war effort, but not

that they are going to be infected with malaria. During Nuremberg

Trials, Nazi doctors later cite this American study to defend their

own medical experiments in concentration camps like Auschwitz

(Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

The Chemical Warfare Service begins mustard gas and lewisite

experiments on 4,000 members of the U.S. military. Some test subjects

don't realize they are volunteering for chemical exposure experiments,

like 17-year-old Nathan Schnurman, who in 1944 thinks he is only

volunteering to test " U.S. Navy summer clothes " (Goliszek).

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In an experiment sponsored by the U.S. Navy, Harvard biochemist

Edward Cohn injects 64 inmates of Massachusetts state prisons with

cow's blood (Sharav).

Merck Pharmaceuticals President George Merck is named director of the

War Research Service (WRS), an agency designed to oversee the

establishment of a biological warfare program (Goliszek).

(1943)

In order to " study the effect of frigid temperature on mental

disorders, " researchers at University of Cincinnati Hospital keep 16

mentally disabled patients in refrigerated cabinets for 120 hours at

30 degrees Fahrenheit (Sharav).

(1944)

As part of the Manhattan Project that would eventually create the

atomic bomb, researchers inject 4.7 micrograms of plutonium into

soldiers at the Oak Ridge facility, 20 miles west of Knoxville, Tenn.

( " Manhattan Project: Oak Ridge " ).

Captain A. W. Frisch, an experienced microbiologist, begins

experiments on four volunteers from the state prison at Dearborn,

Mich., inoculating prisoners with hepatitis-infected specimens

obtained in North Africa. One prisoner dies; two others develop

hepatitis but live; the fourth develops symptoms but does not actually

develop the disease (Meiklejohn).

Laboratory workers at the University of Minnesota and University of

Chicago inject human test subjects with phosphorus-32 to learn the

metabolism of hemoglobin (Goliszek).

(1944 - 1946) In order to quickly develop a cure for malaria -- a

disease hindering Allied success in World War II -- University of

Chicago Medical School professor Dr. Alf Alving infects psychotic

patients at Illinois State Hospital with the disease through blood

transfusions and then experiments malaria cures on them (Sharav).

A captain in the medical corps addresses an April 1944 memo to Col.

Stanford Warren, head of the Manhattan Project's Medical Section,

expressing his concerns about atom bomb component fluoride's central

nervous system (CNS) effects and asking for animal research to be done

to determine the extent of these effects: " Clinical evidence suggests

that uranium hexafluoride may have a rather marked central nervous

system effect ... It seems most likely that the F [code for fluoride]

component rather than the T [code for uranium] is the causative factor

.... Since work with these compounds is essential, it will be necessary

to know in advance what mental effects may occur after exposure. " The

following year, the Manhattan Project would begin human-based studies

on fluoride's effects (Griffiths and Bryson).

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The Manhattan Project medical team, led by the now infamous

University of Rochester radiologist Col. Safford Warren, injects

plutonium into patients at the University's teaching hospital, Strong

Memorial (Burton Report).

(1945)

Continuing the Manhattan Project, researchers inject plutonium into

three patients at the University of Chicago's Billings Hospital (Sharav).

The U.S. State Department, Army intelligence and the CIA begin

Operation Paperclip, offering Nazi scientists immunity and secret

identities in exchange for work on top-secret government projects on

aerodynamics and chemical warfare medicine in the United States

( " Project Paperclip " ).

Researchers infect 800 prisoners in Atlanta with malaria to study the

disease (Sharav).

(1945 - 1955) In Newburgh, N.Y., researchers linked to the Manhattan

Project begin the most extensive American study ever done on the

health effects of fluoridating public drinking water (Griffiths and

Bryson).

(1946)

Gen. Douglas MacArthur strikes a secret deal with Japanese physician

Dr. Shiro Ishii to turn over 10,000 pages of information gathered from

human experimentation in exchange for granting Ishii immunity from

prosecution for the horrific experiments he performed on Chinese,

Russian and American war prisoners, including performing vivisections

on live human beings (Goliszek, Sharav).

Male and female test subjects at Chicago's Argonne National

Laboratories are given intravenous injections of arsenic-76 so that

researchers can study how the human body absorbs, distributes and

excretes arsenic (Goliszek).

Continuing the Newburg study of 1945, the Manhattan Project

commissions the University of Rochester to study fluoride's effects on

animals and humans in a project codenamed " Program F. " With the help

of the New York State Health Department, Program F researchers

secretly collect and analyze blood and tissue samples from Newburg

residents. The studies are sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission

and take place at the University of Rochester Medical Center's Strong

Memorial Hospital (Griffiths and Bryson).

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(1946 - 1947) University of Rochester researchers inject four male

and two female human test subjects with uranium-234 and uranium-235 in

dosages ranging from 6.4 to 70.7 micrograms per one kilogram of body

weight in order to study how much uranium they could tolerate before

their kidneys become damaged (Goliszek).

Six male employees of a Chicago metallurgical laboratory are given

water contaminated with plutonium-239 to drink so that researchers can

learn how plutonium is absorbed into the digestive tract (Goliszek).

Researchers begin using patients in VA hospitals as test subjects for

human medical experiments, cleverly worded as " investigations " or

" observations " in medical study reports to avoid negative connotations

and bad publicity (Sharav).

The American public finally learns of the biowarfare experiments being

done at Fort Detrick from a report released by the War Department

(Goliszek).

(1946 - 1953) The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission sponsors studies in

which researchers from Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General

Hospital and the Boston University School of Medicine feed mentally

disabled students at Fernald State School Quaker Oats breakfast cereal

spiked with radioactive tracers every morning so that nutritionists

can study how preservatives move through the human body and if they

block the absorption of vitamins and minerals. Later, MIT researchers

conduct the same study at Wrentham State School (Sharav, Goliszek).

Human test subjects are given one to four injections of arsenic-76 at

the University of Chicago Department of Medicine. Researchers take

tissue biopsies from the subjects before and after the injections

(Goliszek).

(1947)

Col. E.E. Kirkpatrick of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

issues a top-secret document (707075) dated Jan. 8. In it, he writes

that " certain radioactive substances are being prepared for

intravenous administration to human subjects as a part of the work of

the contract " (Goliszek).

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A secret AEC document dated April 17 reads, " It is desired that no

document be released which refers to experiments with humans that

might have an adverse reaction on public opinion or result in legal

suits, " revealing that the U.S. government was aware of the health

risks its nuclear tests posed to military personnel conducting the

tests or nearby civilians (Goliszek).

The CIA begins studying LSD's potential as a weapon by using military

and civilian test subjects for experiments without their consent or

even knowledge. Eventually, these LSD studies will evolve into the

MKULTRA program in 1953 (Sharav).

(1947 - 1953) The U.S. Navy begins Project Chatter to identify and

test so-called " truth serums, " such as those used by the Soviet Union

to interrogate spies. Mescaline and the central nervous system

depressant scopolamine are among the many drugs tested on human

subjects (Goliszek).

(1948)

Based on the secret studies performed on Newburgh, N.Y. residents

beginning in 1945, Project F researchers publish a report in the

August 1948 edition of the Journal of the American Dental Association,

detailing fluoride's health dangers. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

(AEC) quickly censors it for " national security " reasons (Griffiths

and Bryson).

(1950)

(1950 - 1953) The CIA and later the Office of Scientific Intelligence

begin Project Bluebird (renamed Project Artichoke in 1951) in order to

find ways to " extract " information from CIA agents, control

individuals " through special interrogation techniques, " " enhance

memory " and use " unconventional techniques, including hypnosis and

drugs " for offensive measures (Goliszek).

(1950 - 1953) The U.S. Army releases chemical clouds over six American

and Canadian cities. Residents in Winnipeg, Canada, where a highly

toxic chemical called cadmium is dropped, subsequently experience high

rates of respiratory illnesses (Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

other medical racket operators forfeit ethics for power and profits

In order to determine how susceptible an American city could be to

biological attack, the U.S. Navy sprays a cloud of Bacillus globigii

bacteria from ships over the San Francisco shoreline. According to

monitoring devices situated throughout the city to test the extent of

infection, the eight thousand residents of San Francisco inhale five

thousand or more bacteria particles, many becoming sick with

pneumonia-like symptoms (Goliszek).

Dr. Joseph Strokes of the University of Pennsylvania infects 200

female prisoners with viral hepatitis to study the disease (Sharav).

Doctors at the Cleveland City Hospital study changes in cerebral blood

flow by injecting test subjects with spinal anesthesia, inserting

needles in their jugular veins and brachial arteries, tilting their

heads down and, after massive blood loss causes paralysis and

fainting, measuring their blood pressure. They often perform this

experiment multiple times on the same subject (Goliszek).

Dr. D. Ewen Cameron, later of MKULTRA infamy due to his 1957 to1964

experiments on Canadians, publishes an article in the British Journal

of Physical Medicine, in which he describes experiments that entail

forcing schizophrenic patients at Manitoba's Brandon Mental Hospital

to lie naked under 15- to 200-watt red lamps for up to eight hours per

day. His other experiments include placing mental patients in an

electric cage that overheats their internal body temperatures to 103

degrees Fahrenheit, and inducing comas by giving patients large

injections of insulin (Goliszek).

(1951)

The U.S. Navy's Project Bluebird is renamed Project Artichoke and

begins human medical experiments that test the effectiveness of LSD,

sodium pentothal and hypnosis for the interrogative purposes described

in Project Bluebird's objectives (1950) (Goliszek). Related article

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The U.S. Army secretly contaminates the Norfolk Naval Supply Center

in Virginia and Washington, D.C.'s National Airport with a strain of

bacteria chosen because African-Americans were believed to be more

susceptible to it than Caucasians. The experiment causes food

poisoning, respiratory problems and blood poisoning (Cockburn and St.

Clair, eds.).

(1951 - 1952) Researchers withhold insulin from diabetic patients for

up to two days in order to observe the effects of diabetes; some test

subjects go into diabetic comas (Goliszek).

(1951 - 1956) Under contract with the Air Force's School of Aviation

Medicine (SAM), the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in

Houston begins studying the effects of radiation on cancer patients --

many of them members of minority groups or indigents, according to

sources -- in order to determine both radiation's ability to treat

cancer and the possible long-term radiation effects of pilots flying

nuclear-powered planes. The study lasts until 1956, involving 263

cancer patients. Beginning in 1953, the subjects are required to sign

a waiver form, but it still does not meet the informed consent

guidelines established by the Wilson memo released that year. The TBI

studies themselves would continue at four different institutions --

Baylor University College of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering

Institute for Cancer Research, the U.S. Naval Hospital in Bethesda and

the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine -- until 1971 (U.S.

Department of Energy, Goliszek).

American, Canadian and British military and intelligence officials

gather a small group of eminent psychologists to a secret meeting at

the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Montreal about Communist " thought-control

techniques. " They proposed a top-secret research program on behavior

modification -- involving testing drugs, hypnosis, electroshock and

lobotomies on humans (Barker).

(1952)

Military scientists use the Dugway Proving Ground -- which is located

87 miles southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah -- in a series of

experiments to determine how Brucella suis and Brucella melitensis

spread in human populations. Today, over a half-century later, some

experts claim that we are all infected with these agents as a result

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In a U.S. Department of Denfense-sponsored experiment, Henry Blauer

dies after he is injected with mescaline at Columbia University's New

York State Psychiatric Institute (Sharav).

At the famous Sloan-Kettering Institute, Chester M. Southam injects

live cancer cells into prisoners at the Ohio State Prison to study the

progression of the disease. Half of the prisoners in this National

Institutes of Health-sponsored (NIH) study are black, awakening racial

suspicions stemming from Tuskegee, which was also an NIH-sponsored

study (Merritte, et al.).

(1953)

(1953 - 1970) The CIA begins project MKNAOMI to " stockpile

incapacitating and lethal materials, to develop gadgetry for the

disseminations of these materials, and to test the effects of certain

drugs on animals and humans. " As part of MKNAOMI, the CIA and the

Special Operations Division of the Army Biological Laboratory at Fort

Detrick try to develop two suicide pill alternatives to the standard

cyanide suicide pill given to CIA agents and U-2 pilots. CIA agents

and U-2 pilots are meant to take these pills when they find themselves

in situations in which they (and all the information they hold in

their brains) are in enemy hands. They also develop a

" microbioinoculator " -- a device that agents can use to fire small

darts coated with biological agents that can remain potent for weeks

or even months. These darts can be fired through clothing and, most

significantly, are undetectable during autopsy. Eventually, by the

late 1960s, MKNAOMI enables the CIA to have a stockpile of biological

toxins -- infectious viruses, paralytic shellfish toxin, lethal

botulism toxin, snake venom and the severe skin disease-producing

agent Mircosporum gypseum. Of course, the development of all of this

" gadgetry " requires human experimentation (Goliszek).

(1953 - 1974) CIA Director Allen Dulles authorizes the MKULTRA program

to produce and test drugs and biological agents that the CIA could use

for mind control and behavior modification. MKULTRA later becomes well

known for its pioneering studies on LSD, which are often performed on

prisoners or patrons of brothels set up and run by the CIA. The

brothel experiments, known as " Operation Midnight Climax, " feature

two-way mirrors set up in the brothels so that CIA agents can observe

LSD's effects on sexual behavior. Ironically, governmental figures

sometimes slip LSD into each other's drinks as part of the program,

resulting in the LSD psychosis-induced suicide of Dr. Frank Olson

indirectly at the hands of MKULTRA's infamous key player Dr. Sidney

Gottlieb. Of all the hundreds of human test subjects used during

MKULTRA, only 14 are ever notified of the involvement and only one is

ever compensated ($15,000). Most of the MKULTRA files are eventually

destroyed in 1973 (Elliston; Merritte, et al.; Barker).

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) sponsors iodine studies at

the University of Iowa. In the first study, researchers give pregnant

women 100 to 200 microcuries of iodine-131 and then study the women's

aborted embryos in order to learn at what stage and to what extent

radioactive iodine crosses the placental barrier. In the second study,

researchers give 12 male and 13 female newborns under 36 hours old and

weighing between 5.5 and 8.5 pounds iodine-131 either orally or via

intramuscular injection, later measuring the concentration of iodine

in the newborns' thyroid glands (Goliszek).

Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson issues the Wilson memo, a

top-secret document establishing the Nuremberg Code as Department of

Defense policy on human experimentation. The Wilson memo requires

voluntary, written consent from a human medical research subject after

he or she has been informed of " the nature, duration, and purpose of

the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted;

all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and effects

upon his health or person which may possibly come from his

participation in the experiment. " It also insists that doctors only

use experimental treatments when other methods have failed (Berdon).

As part of an AEC study, researchers feed 28 healthy infants at the

University of Nebraska College of Medicine iodine-131 through a

gastric tube and then test concentration of iodine in the infants'

thyroid glands 24 hours later (Goliszek).

(1953 - 1957) Eleven patients at Massachusetts General Hospital in

Boston are injected with uranium as part of the Manhattan Project

(Sharav).

In an AEC-sponsored study at the University of Tennessee, researchers

inject healthy two- to three-day-old newborns with approximately 60

rads of iodine-131 (Goliszek).

Newborn Daniel Burton becomes blind when physicians at Brooklyn

Doctors Hospital perform an experimental high oxygen treatment for

Retrolental Fibroplasia, a retinal disorder affecting premature

infants, on him and other premature babies. The physicians perform the

experimental treatment despite earlier studies showing that high

oxygen levels cause blindness. Testimony in Burton v. Brooklyn Doctors

Hospital (452 N.Y.S.2d875) later reveals that researchers continued to

give Burton and other infants excess oxygen even after their eyes had

swelled to dangerous levels (Goliszek, Sharav).

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The CIA begins Project MKDELTA to study the use of biochemicals " for

harassment, discrediting and disabling purposes " (Goliszek).

A 1953 article in Clinical Science describes a medical experiment in

which researchers purposely blister the abdomens of 41 children,

ranging in age from eight to 14, with cantharide in order to study how

severely the substance irritates the skin (Goliszek).

The AEC performs a series of field tests known as " Green Run, "

dropping radiodine 131 and xenon 133 over the Hanford, Wash. site --

500,000 acres encompassing three small towns (Hanford, White Bluffs

and Richland) along the Columbia River (Sharav).

In an AEC-sponsored study to learn whether radioactive iodine affects

premature babies differently from full-term babies, researchers at

Harper Hospital in Detroit give oral doses of iodine-131 to 65

premature and full-term infants weighing between 2.1 and 5.5 pounds

(Goliszek).

(1954)

The CIA begins Project QKHILLTOP to study Chinese Communist Party

brainwashing techniques and use them to further the CIA's own

interrogative methods. Most experts speculate that the Cornell

University Medical School Human Ecology Studies Program conducted

Project QKHILLTOP's early experiments (Goliszek).

(1954 - 1975) U.S. Air Force medical officers assigned to Fort

Detrick's Chemical Corps Biological Laboratory begin Operation

Whitecoat -- experiments involving exposing human test subjects to

hepatitis A, plague, yellow fever, Venezuelan equine encephalitis,

Rift Valley fever, rickettsia and intestinal microbes. These test

subjects include 2,300 Seventh Day Adventist military personnel, who

choose to become human guinea pigs rather than potentially kill others

in combat. Only two of the 2,300 claim long-term medical complications

from participating in the study ( " Operation Whitecoat " .)

In a general memo to university researchers under contract with the

military, the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army asserts the human

experimentation guidelines -- including informed, written consent --

established in the classified Wilson memo (Goliszek).

(1955)

In U.S. Army-sponsored experiments performed at Tulane University,

mental patients are given LSD and other drugs and then have electrodes

implanted in their brain to measure the levels (Barker, " The Cold War

Experiments " ). Related article

How iodine accelerates weight loss by supporting the thyroid gland

(1955 - 1957) In order to learn how cold weather affects human

physiology, researchers give a total of 200 doses of iodine-131, a

radioactive tracer that concentrates almost immediately in the thyroid

gland, to 85 healthy Eskimos and 17 Athapascan Indians living in

Alaska. They study the tracer within the body by blood, thyroid

tissue, urine and saliva samples from the test subjects. Due to the

language barrier, no one tells the test subjects what is being done to

them, so there is no informed consent (Goliszek).

(1955 - 1965) As a result of their work with the CIA's mind control

experiments in Project QKHILLTOP, Cornell neurologists Harold Wolff

and Lawrence Hinkle begin the Society for the Investigation of Human

Ecology (later renamed the Human Ecology Fund) to study " man's

relation to his social environment as perceived by him " (Goliszek).

(1956)

(1956 - 1957) U.S. Army covert biological weapons researchers release

mosquitoes infected with yellow fever and dengue fever over Savannah,

Ga., and Avon Park, Fla., to test the insects' ability to carry

disease. After each test, Army agents pose as public health officials

to test victims for effects and take pictures of the unwitting test

subjects. These experiments result in a high incidence of fevers,

respiratory distress, stillbirths, encephalitis and typhoid among the

two cities' residents, as well as several deaths (Cockburn and St.

Clair, eds.).

(1957)

The U.S. military conducts Operation Plumbbob at the Nevada Test Site,

65 miles northwest of Las Vegas. Operation Pumbbob consists of 29

nuclear detonations, eventually creating radiation expected to result

in a total 32,000 cases of thyroid cancer among civilians in the area.

Around 18,000 members of the U.S. military participate in Operation

Pumbbob's Desert Rock VII and VIII, which are designed to see how the

average foot soldier physiologically and mentally responds to a

nuclear battlefield ( " Operation Plumbbob " , Goliszek). Related article

Protect your health (and your thyroid) with potassium iodide in case

of a nuclear emergency or terrorism event

(1957 - 1964) As part of MKULTRA, the CIA pays McGill University

Department of Psychiatry founder Dr. D. Ewen Cameron $69,000 to

perform LSD studies and potentially lethal experiments on Canadians

being treated for minor disorders like post-partum depression and

anxiety at the Allan Memorial Institute, which houses the Psychiatry

Department of the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal. The CIA

encourages Dr. Cameron to fully explore his " psychic driving " concept

of correcting madness through completely erasing one's memory and

rewriting the psyche. These " driving " experiments involve putting

human test subjects into drug-, electroshock- and sensory

deprivation-induced vegetative states for up to three months, and then

playing tape loops of noise or simple repetitive statements for weeks

or months in order to " rewrite " the " erased " psyche. Dr. Cameron also

gives human test subjects paralytic drugs and electroconvulsive

therapy 30 to 40 times, as part of his experiments. Most of Dr.

Cameron's test subjects suffer permanent damage as a result of his

work (Goliszek, " Donald Ewan Cameron " ).

In order to study how blood flows through children's brains,

researchers at Children's Hospital in Philadelphia perform the

following experiment on healthy children, ranging in age from three to

11: They insert needles into each child's femoral artery (thigh) and

jugular vein (neck), bringing the blood down from the brain. Then,

they force each child to inhale a special gas through a facemask. In

their subsequent Journal of Clinical Investigation article on this

study, the researchers note that, in order to perform the experiment,

they had to restrain some of the child test subjects by bandaging them

to boards (Goliszek).

(1958)

Approximately 300 members of the U.S. Navy are exposed to radiation

when the Navy destroyer Mansfield detonates 30 nuclear bombs off the

coasts of Pacific Islands during Operation Hardtack (Goliszek).

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) drops radioactive materials

over Point Hope, Alaska, home to the Inupiats, in a field test known

under the codename " Project Chariot " (Sharav).

(1961)

In response to the Nuremberg Trials, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram

begins his famous Obedience to Authority Study in order to answer his

question " Could it be that (Adolf) Eichmann and his million

accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call

them all accomplices? " Male test subjects, ranging in age from 20 to

40 and coming from all education backgrounds, are told to give

" learners " electric shocks for every wrong answer the learners give in

response to word pair questions. In reality, the learners are actors

and are not receiving electric shocks, but what matters is that the

test subjects do not know that. Astoundingly, they keep on following

orders and continue to administer increasingly high levels of

" shocks, " even after the actor learners show obvious physical pain

( " Milgram Experiment " ).

(1962)

Researchers at the Laurel Children's Center in Maryland test

experimental acne antibiotics on children and continue their tests

even after half of the young test subjects develop severe liver damage

because of the experimental medication (Goliszek). The U.S. Army's

Deseret Test Center begins Project 112. This includes SHAD (Shipboard

Hazard and Defense), which exposes U.S. Navy and Army personnel to

live toxins and chemical poisons in order to determine naval ships'

vulnerability to chemical and biological weapons. Military personnel

are not test subjects; conducting the tests exposes them. Many of

these participants complain of negative health effects at the time

and, decades later, suffer from severe medical problems as a result of

their exposure (Goliszek, Veterans Health Administration). Related

article

American news industry a far cry from genuine journalism

The FDA begins requiring that a new pharmaceutical undergo three

human clinical trials before it will approve it. From 1962 to 1980,

pharmaceutical companies satisfy this requirement by running Phase I

trials, which determine a drug's toxicity, on prison inmates, giving

them small amounts of cash for compensation (Sharav).

(1963)

Chester M. Southam, who injected Ohio State Prison inmates with live

cancer cells in 1952, performs the same procedure on 22 senile,

African-American female patients at the Brooklyn Jewish Chronic

Disease Hospital in order to watch their immunological response.

Southam tells the patients that they are receiving " some cells, " but

leaves out the fact that they are cancer cells. He claims he doesn't

obtain informed consent from the patients because he does not want to

frighten them by telling them what he is doing, but he nevertheless

temporarily loses his medical license because of it. Ironically, he

eventually becomes president of the American Cancer Society (Greger,

Merritte, et al.).

Researchers at the University of Washington directly irradiate the

testes of 232 prison inmates in order to determine radiation's effects

on testicular function. When these inmates later leave prison and have

children, at least four have babies born with birth defects. The exact

number is unknown because researchers never follow up on the men to

see the long-term effects of their experiment (Goliszek).

In a National Institutes of Health-sponsored (NIH) study, a researcher

transplants a chimpanzee's kidney into a human. The experiment fails

(Sharav).

(1963 - 1966) New York University researcher Saul Krugman promises

parents with mentally disabled children definite enrollment into the

Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, N.Y., a resident mental

institution for mentally retarded children, in exchange for their

signatures on a consent form for procedures presented as

" vaccinations. " In reality, the procedures involve deliberately

infecting children with viral hepatitis by feeding them an extract

made from the feces of infected patients, so that Krugman can study

the course of viral hepatitis as well the effectiveness of a hepatitis

vaccine (Hammer Breslow).

(1963 - 1971) Leading endocrinologist Dr. Carl Heller gives 67 prison

inmates at Oregon State Prison in Salem $5 per month and $25 per

testicular tissue biopsy in compensation for allowing him to perform

irradiation experiments on their testes. If they receive vasectomies

at the end of the study, the prisoners are given an extra $100

(Sharav, Goliszek).

Researchers inject a genetic compound called radioactive thymidine

into the testicles of more than 100 Oregon State Penitentiary inmates

to learn whether sperm production is affected by exposure to steroid

hormones (Greger).

In a study published in Pediatrics, researchers at the University of

California's Department of Pediatrics use 113 newborns ranging in age

from one hour to three days old in a series of experiments used to

study changes in blood pressure and blood flow. In one study, doctors

insert a catheter through the newborns' umbilical arteries and into

their aortas and then immerse the newborns' feet in ice water while

recording aortic pressure. In another experiment, doctors strap 50

newborns to a circumcision board, tilt the table so that all the blood

rushes to their heads and then measure their blood pressure (Goliszek).

(1964)

(1964 - 1968) The U.S. Army pays $386,486 (the largest sum ever paid

for human experimentation) to University of Pennsylvania Professors

Albert Kligman and Herbert W. Copelan to run medical experiments on

320 inmates of Holmesburg Prison to determine the effectiveness of

seven mind-altering drugs. The researchers' objective is to determine

the minimum effective dose of each drug needed to disable 50 percent

of any given population (MED-50). Though Professors Kligman and

Copelan claim that they are unaware of any long-term effects the

mind-altering agents might have on prisoners, documents revealed later

would prove otherwise (Kaye).

(1964 - 1967) The Dow Chemical Company pays Professor Kligman $10,000

to learn how dioxin -- a highly toxic, carcinogenic component of Agent

Orange -- and other herbicides affect human skin because workers at

the chemical plant have been developing an acne-like condition called

Chloracne and the company would like to know whether the chemicals

they are handling are to blame. As part of the study, Professor

Kligman applies roughly the amount of dioxin Dow employees are exposed

to on the skin 60 prisoners, and is disappointed when the prisoners

show no symptoms of Chloracne. In 1980 and 1981, the human guinea pigs

used in this study would begin suing Professor Kligman for

complications including lupus and psychological damage (Kaye).

(1965)

The Department of Defense uses human test subjects wearing rubber

clothing and M9A1 masks to conduct 35 trials near Fort Greely, Ala.,

as part of the Elk Hunt tests, which are designed to measure the

amount of VX nerve agent put on the clothing of people moving through

VX-contaminated areas or touching contaminated vehicles, and the

amount of VX vapor rising from these areas. After the tests, the

subjects are decontaminated using wet steam and high-pressure cold

water (Goliszek).

As part of a test codenamed " Big Tom, " the Department of Defense

sprays Oahu, Hawaii's most heavily populated island, with Bacillus

globigii in order to simulate an attack on an island complex. Bacillus

globigii causes infections in people with weakened immune systems, but

this was not known to scientists at the time (Goliszek, Martin).

(1966)

The CIA continues a limited number of MKULTRA plans by beginning

Project MKSEARCH to develop and test ways of using biological,

chemical and radioactive materials in intelligence operations, and

also to develop and test drugs that are able to produce predictable

changes in human behavior and physiology (Goliszek).

Dr. Henry Beecher writes, " The well-being, the health, even the actual

or potential life of all human beings, born or unborn, depend upon the

continuing experimentation in man. Proceed it must; proceed it will.

'The proper study of mankind is man,' " in his " exposé " on human

medical experimentation Research and the Individual ( " Human

Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and After " ).

U.S. Army scientists drop light bulbs filled with Bacillus subtilis

through ventilation gates and into the New York City subway system,

exposing more than one million civilians to the bacteria (Goliszek).

The National Commission for the Protection of Research Subjects issues

its Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects, which eventually

creates what we now know as institutional review boards (IRBs) (Sharav).

(1967)

Continuing on his Dow Chemical Company-sponsored dioxin study without

the company's knowledge or consent, University of Pennsylvania

Professor Albert Kligman increases the dosage of dioxin he applies to

10 prisoners' skin to 7,500 micrograms, 468 times the dosage Dow

official Gerald K. Rowe had authorized him to administer. As a result,

the prisoners experience acne lesions that develop into inflammatory

pustules and papules (Kaye).

The CIA places a chemical in the drinking water supply of the FDA

headquarters in Washington, D.C. to see whether it is possible to

spike drinking water with LSD and other substances (Cockburn and St.

Clair, eds.).

In a study published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation,

researchers inject pregnant women with radioactive cortisol to see if

the radioactive material will cross the placentas and affect the

fetuses (Goliszek).

The U.S. Army pays Professor Kligman to apply skin-blistering

chemicals to Holmesburg Prison inmates' faces and backs, so as to, in

Professor Kligman's words, " learn how the skin protects itself against

chronic assault from toxic chemicals, the so-called hardening

process, " information which would have both offensive and defensive

applications for the U.S. military (Kaye).

The CIA and Edgewood Arsenal Research Laboratories begin an extensive

program for developing drugs that can influence human behavior. This

program includes Project OFTEN -- which studies the toxicology,

transmission and behavioral effects of drugs in animal and human

subjects -- and Project CHICKWIT, which gathers European and Asian

drug development information (Goliszek).

Professor Kligman develops Retin-A as an acne cream (and eventually a

wrinkle cream), turning him into a multi-millionaire (Kaye).

Researchers paralyze 64 prison inmates in California with a

neuromuscular compound called succinylcholine, which produces

suppressed breathing that feels similar to drowning. When five

prisoners refuse to participate in the medical experiment, the

prison's special treatment board gives researchers permission to

inject the prisoners with the drug against their will (Greger).

(1968)

Planned Parenthood of San Antonio and South Central Texas and the

Southwest Foundation for Research and Education begin an oral

contraceptive study on 70 poverty-stricken Mexican-American women,

giving only half the oral contraceptives they think they are receiving

and the other half a placebo. When the results of this study are

released a few years later, it stirs tremendous controversy among

Mexican-Americans (Sharav, Sauter).

(1969)

President Nixon ends the United States' offensive biowarfare program,

including human experimentation done at Fort Detrick. By this time,

tens of thousands of civilians and members of the U.S. armed forces

have wittingly and unwittingly acted as participants in experiments

involving exposure to dangerous biological agents (Goliszek).

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The U.S. military conducts DTC Test 69-12, which is an open-air test

of VX and sarin nerve agents at the Army's Edgewood Arsenal in

Maryland, likely exposing military personnel (Goliszek, Martin).

Experimental drugs are tested on mentally disabled children in

Milledgeville, Ga., without any institutional approval whatsoever

(Sharav).

Dr. Donald MacArthur, the U.S. Department of Defense's Deputy Director

for Research and Technology, requests $10 million from Congress to

develop a synthetic biological agent that would be resistant " to the

immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to

maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease " (Cockburn and

St. Clair, eds.).

Judge Sam Steinfield's dissent in Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d 145

marks the first time a judge has ever suggested that the Nuremberg

Code be applied in American court cases (Sharav).

(1970)

A year after his request, under H.R. 15090, Dr. MacArthur receives

funding to begin CIA-supervised mycoplasma research with Fort

Detrick's Special Operations Division and hopefully create a synthetic

immunosuppressive agent. Some experts believe that this research may

have inadvertently created HIV, the virus that causes AIDS (Goliszek).

Under order from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which also

sponsored the Tuskegee Experiment, the free childcare program at Johns

Hopkins University collects blood samples from 7,000 African-American

youth, telling their parents that they are checking for anemia but

actually checking for an extra Y chromosome (XYY), believed to be a

biological predisposition to crime. The program director, Digamber

Borganokar, does this experiment without Johns Hopkins University's

permission (Greger, Merritte, et al.).

(1971)

President Nixon converts Fort Detrick from an offensive biowarfare lab

to the Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, now known as

the National Cancer Institute at Frederick. In addition to cancer

research, scientists study virology, immunology and retrovirology

(including HIV) there. Additionally, the site is home to the U.S. Army

Medical Research Institute, which researches drugs, vaccines and

countermeasures for biological warfare, so the former Fort Detrick

does not move far away from its biowarfare past (Goliszek). Related

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Stanford University conducts the Stanford Prison Experiment on a group

of college students in order to learn the psychology of prison life.

Some students are given the role as prison guards, while the others

are given the role of prisoners. After only six days, the proposed

two-week study has to end because of its psychological effects on the

participants. The " guards " had begun to act sadistic, while the

" prisoners " started to show signs of depression and severe

psychological stress (University of New Hampshire).

An article entitled " Viral Infections in Man Associated with Acquired

Immunological Deficiency States " appears in Federation Proceedings.

Dr. MacArthur and Fort Detrick's Special Operations Division have, at

this point, been conducting mycoplasma research to create a synthetic

immunosuppressive agent for about one year, again suggesting that this

research may have produced HIV (Goliszek).

(1972)

In studies sponsored by the U.S. Air Force, Dr. Amedeo Marrazzi gives

LSD to mental patients at the University of Missouri Institute of

Psychiatry and the University of Minnesota Hospital to study " ego

strength " (Barker).

(1973)

An Ad Hoc Advisory Panel issues its Final Report on the Tuskegee

Syphilis Study, writing, " Society can no longer afford to leave the

balancing of individual rights against scientific progress to the

scientific community " (Sharav).

(1974)

Congress enacts the National Research Act, creating the National

Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and

Behavioral Research and finally setting standards for human

experimentation on children (Breslow).

(1975)

The Department of Health, Education and Welfare gives the National

Institutes of Health's Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects

(1966) regulatory status. Title 45, known as " The Common Rule, "

officially creates institutional review boards (IRBs) (Sharav).

(1977)

The Kennedy Hearing initiates the process toward Executive Order

12333, prohibiting intelligence agencies from experimenting on humans

without informed consent (Merritte, et al.).

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The U.S. government issues an official apology and $400,000 to Jeanne

Connell, the sole survivor from Col. Warren's now-infamous plutonium

injections at Strong Memorial Hospital, and the families of the other

human test subjects (Burton Report).

The National Urban League holds its National Conference on Human

Experimentation, stating, " We don't want to kill science but we don't

want science to kill, mangle and abuse us " (Sharav).

(1978)

The CDC begins experimental hepatitis B vaccine trials in New York.

Its ads for research subjects specifically ask for promiscuous

homosexual men. Professor Wolf Szmuness of the Columbia University

School of Public Health had made the vaccine's infective serum from

the pooled blood serum of hepatitis-infected homosexuals and then

developed it in chimpanzees, the only animal susceptible to hepatitis

B, leading to the theory that HIV originated in chimpanzees before

being transferred over to humans via this vaccine. A few months after

1,083 homosexual men receive the vaccine, New York physicians begin

noticing cases of Kaposi's sarcoma, Mycoplasma penetrans and a new

strain of herpes virus among New York's homosexual community --

diseases not usually seen among young, American men, but that would

later be known as common opportunistic diseases associated with AIDS

(Goliszek).

(1979)

The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of

Biomedical and Behavioral Research releases the Belmont Report, which

establishes the foundations for research experimentation on humans.

The Belmont Report mandates that researchers follow three basic

principles: 1. Respect the subjects as autonomous persons and protect

those with limited ability for independence (such as children), 2. Do

no harm, 3. Choose test subjects justly -- being sure not to target

certain groups because of they are easily accessible or easily

manipulated, rather than for reasons directly related to the tests

(Berdon).

(1980)

A study reveals a high incidence of leukemia among the 18,000 military

personnel who participated in 1957's Operation Plumbbob (a

href= " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob " > " Operation

Plumbob " ).

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According to blood samples tested years later for HIV, 20 percent of

all New York homosexual men who participated in the 1978 hepatitis B

vaccine experiment are HIV-positive by this point (Goliszek).

American doctors give experimental hormone shots to hundreds of

Haitian men confined to detention camps in Miami and Puerto Rico,

causing the men to develop a condition known as gynecomastia, in which

men develop full-sized breasts (Cockburn and St. Clair, eds.).

The CDC continues its 1978 hepatitis B vaccine experiment in Los

Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, St. Louis and Denver, recruiting over

7,000 homosexual men in San Francisco alone (Goliszek).

The FDA prohibits the use of prison inmates in pharmaceutical drug

trials, leading to the advent of the experimental drug testing centers

industry (Sharav).

The first AIDS case appears in San Francisco (Goliszek).

(1981)

(1981 - 1993) The Seattle-based Genetic Systems Corporation begins an

ongoing medical experiment called Protocol No. 126, in which cancer

patients at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle are

given bone marrow transplants that contain eight experimental proteins

made by Genetic Systems, rather than standard bone marrow transplants;

19 human subjects die from complications directly related to the

experimental treatment (Goliszek).

A deep diving experiment at Duke University causes test subject

Leonard Whitlock to suffer permanent brain damage (Sharav).

The CDC acknowledges that a disease known as AIDS exists and confirms

26 cases of the disease -- all in previously healthy homosexuals

living in New York, San Francisco and Los Angeles -- again supporting

the speculation that AIDS originated from the hepatitis B experiments

from 1978 and 1980 (Goliszek).

(1982)

Thirty percent of the test subjects used in the CDC's hepatitis B

vaccine experiment are HIV-positive by this point (Goliszek).

(1984)

SFBC Phase I research clinic founded in Miami, Fla. By 2005, it would

become the largest experimental drug testing center in North America

with centers in Miami and Montreal, running Phase I to Phase IV

clinical trials (Drug Development-Technology.com).

(1985)

A former U.S. Army sergeant tries to sue the Army for using drugs on

him in without his consent or even his knowledge in United States v.

Stanley, 483 U.S. 669. Justice Antonin Scalia writes the decision,

clearing the U.S. military from any liability in past, present or

future medical experiments without informed consent (Merritte, et al..

(1987)

Philadelphia resident Doris Jackson discovers that researchers have

removed her son's brain post mortem for medical study. She later

learns that the state of Pennsylvania has a doctrine of " implied

consent, " meaning that unless a patient signs a document stating

otherwise, consent for organ removal is automatically implied

(Merritte, et al.).

(1988)

The U.S. Justice Department pays nine Canadian survivors of the CIA

and Dr. Cameron's " psychic driving " experiments (1957 - 1964) $750,000

in out-of-court settlements, to avoid any further investigations into

MKULTRA (Goliszek). Related article

San Francisco approves universal health care coverage

(1988 - 2001) The New York City Administration for Children's

Services begins allowing foster care children living in about two

dozen children's homes to be used in National Institutes of

Health-sponsored (NIH) experimental AIDS drug trials. These children

-- totaling 465 by the program's end -- experience serious side

effects, including inability to walk, diarrhea, vomiting, swollen

joints and cramps. Children's home employees are unaware that they are

giving the HIV-infected children experimental drugs, rather than

standard AIDS treatments (New York City ACS, Doran).

(1990)

The United States sends 1.7 million members of the armed forces, 22

percent of whom are African-American, to the Persian Gulf for the Gulf

War ( " Desert Storm " ). More than 400,000 of these soldiers are ordered

to take an experimental nerve agent medication called pyridostigmine,

which is later believed to be the cause of Gulf War Syndrome --

symptoms ranging from skin disorders, neurological disorders,

incontinence, uncontrollable drooling and vision problems -- affecting

Gulf War veterans (Goliszek; Merritte, et al.).

The CDC and Kaiser Pharmaceuticals of Southern California inject 1,500

six-month-old black and Hispanic babies in Los Angeles with an

" experimental " measles vaccine that had never been licensed for use in

the United States. Adding to the risk, children less than a year old

may not have an adequate amount of myelin around their nerves,

possibly resulting in impaired neural development because of the

vaccine. The CDC later admits that parents were never informed that

the vaccine being injected into their children was experimental

(Goliszek).

The FDA allows the U.S. Department of Defense to waive the Nuremberg

Code and use unapproved drugs and vaccines in Operation Desert Shield

(Sharav).

(1991)

In the May 27 issue of the Los Angeles Times, former U.S. Navy radio

operator Richard Jenkins writes that he suffers from leukemia, chronic

fatigue and kidney and liver disease as a result of the radiation

exposure he received in 1958's Operation Hardtack (Goliszek).

preventing them

While participating in a UCLA study that withdraws schizophrenics off

of their medications, Tony LaMadrid commits suicide (Sharav).

(1992)

Columbia University's New York State Psychiatric Institute and the

Mount Sinai School of Medicine give 100 males -- mostly

African-American and Hispanic, all between the ages of six and 10 and

all the younger brothers of juvenile delinquents -- 10 milligrams of

fenfluramine (fen-fen) per kilogram of body weight in order to test

the theory that low serotonin levels are linked to violent or

aggressive behavior. Parents of the participants received $125 each,

including a $25 Toys 'R' Us gift certificate (Goliszek).

(1993)

Researchers at the West Haven VA in Connecticut give 27 schizophrenics

-- 12 inpatients and 15 functioning volunteers -- a chemical called

MCPP that significantly increases their psychotic symptoms and, as

researchers note, negatively affects the test subjects on a long-term

basis ( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

(1994)

In a double-blind experiment at New York VA Hospital, researchers take

23 schizophrenic inpatients off of their medications for a median of

30 days. They then give 17 of them 0.5 mg/kg amphetamine and six a

placebo as a control, following up with PET scans at Brookhaven

Laboratories. According to the researchers, the purpose of the

experiment was " to specifically evaluate metabolic effects in subjects

with varying degrees of amphetamine-induced psychotic exacerbation "

( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

Albuquerque Tribune reporter Welsome receives a Pulitzer Prize

for her investigative reporting into Col. Warren's plutonium

experiments on patients at Strong Memorial Hospital in 1945 (Burton

Report).

In a federally funded experiment at New York VA Medical Center,

researchers give schizophrenic veterans amphetamine, even though

central nervous system stimulants worsen psychotic symptoms in 40

percent of schizophrenics ( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

patients and doctors alike are easily influenced to demand dangerous

drugs

Researchers at Bronx VA Medical Center recruit 28 schizophrenic

veterans who are functioning in society and give them L-dopa in order

to deliberately induce psychotic relapse ( " Testimony of Adil E.

Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

President Clinton appoints the Advisory Commission on Human Radiation

Experiments (ACHRE), which finally reveals the horrific experiments

conducted during the Cold War era in its ACHRE Report.

(1995)

A 19-year-old University of Rochester student named Nicole Wan dies

from participating in an MIT-sponsored experiment that tests airborne

pollutant chemicals on humans. The experiment pays $150 to human test

subjects (Sharav).

In the Mar. 15 President's Advisory Committee on Human Radiation

Experiments (ACHRE), former human subjects, including those who were

used in experiments as children, give sworn testimonies stating that

they were subjected to radiation experiments and/or brainwashed,

hypnotized, drugged, psychologically tortured, threatened and even

raped during CIA experiments. These sworn statements include:

* Christina DeNicola's statement that, in Tucson, Ariz., from 1966

to 1976, " Dr. B " performed mind control experiments using drugs,

post-hypnotic injection and drama, and irradiation experiments on her

neck, throat, chest and uterus. She was only four years old when the

experiments started.

* Claudia Mullen's testimony that Dr. Sidney Gottlieb (of MKULTRA

fame) used chemicals, radiation, hypnosis, drugs, isolation in tubs of

water, sleep deprivation, electric shock, brainwashing and emotional,

sexual and verbal abuse as part of mind control experiments that had

the ultimate objective of turning her, who was only a child at the

time, into the " perfect spy. " She tells the advisory committee that

researchers justified this abuse by telling her that she was serving

her country " in their bold effort to fight Communism. "

* Suzanne Starr's statement that " a physician, who was retired

from the military, got children from the mountains of Colorado for

experiments. " She says she was one of those children and that she was

the victim of experiments involving environmental deprivation to the

point of forced psychosis, spin programming, injections, rape and

frequent electroshock and mind control sessions. " I have fought

self-destructive programmed messages to kill myself, and I know what a

programmed message is, and I don't act on them, " she tells the

advisory committee of the experiments' long-lasting effects, even in

her adulthood (Goliszek).

President Clinton publicly apologizes to the thousands of people who

were victims of MKULTRA and other mind-control experimental programs

(Sharav).

In Dr. Daniel P. van Kammen's study, " Behavioral vs. Biochemical

Prediction of Clinical Stability Following Haloperidol Withdrawal in

Schizophrenia, " researchers recruit 88 veterans who are stabilized by

their medications enough to make them functional in society, and

hospitalize them for eight to 10 weeks. During this time, the

researchers stop giving the veterans the medications that are enabling

them to live in society, placing them back on a two- to four-week

regimen of the standard dose of Haldol. Then, the veterans are

" washed-out, " given lumbar punctures and put under six-week

observation to see who would relapse and suffer symptomatic

schizophrenia once again; 50 percent do ( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo,

Ph.D. " ).

President Clinton appoints the National Bioethics Advisory Committee

(Sharav).

Justice Edward Greenfield of the New York State Supreme Court rules

that parents do not have the right to volunteer their mentally

incapacitated children for non-therapeutic medical research studies

and that no mentally incapacitated person whatsoever can be used in a

medical experiment without informed consent (Sharav).

(1996)

Professor Adil E. Shamoo of the University of Maryland and the

organization Citizens for Responsible Care and Research sends a

written testimony on the unethical use of veterans in medical research

to the U.S. Senate's Committee on Governmental Affairs, stating: " This

type of research is on-going nationwide in medical centers and VA

hospitals supported by tens of millions of dollars of taxpayers money.

These experiments are high risk and are abusive, causing not only

physical and psychic harm to the most vulnerable groups but also

degrading our society's system of basic human values. Probably tens of

thousands of patients are being subjected to such experiments "

( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ). Related article

Iraq is not World War II: Bush's comparison is an affront to WWII

veterans and shameless marketing for more war

The Department of Defense admits that Gulf War soldiers were exposed

to chemical agents; however, 33 percent of all military personnel

afflicted with Gulf War Syndrome never left the United States during

the war, discrediting the popular mainstream belief that these

symptoms are a result of exposure to Iraqi chemical weapons (Merritte,

et al.).

In a federally funded experiment at West Haven VA in Connecticut, Yale

University researchers give schizophrenic veterans amphetamine, even

though central nervous system stimulants worsen psychotic symptoms in

40 percent of schizophrenics ( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

President Clinton issues a formal apology to the subjects of the

Tuskegee Syphilis Study and their families (Sharav).

(1997)

In order to expose unethical medical experiments that provoke

psychotic relapse in schizophrenic patients, the Boston Globe

publishes a four-part series entitled " Doing Harm: Research on the

Mentally Ill " (Sharav).

Researchers give 26 veterans at a VA hospital a chemical called

Yohimbine to purposely induce post-traumatic stress disorder

( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

In order to create a " psychosis model, " University of Cincinnati

researchers give 16 schizophrenic patients at Cincinnati VA

amphetamine in order to provoke repeats bouts of psychosis and

eventually produce " behavioral sensitization " (Sharav).

National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) researchers give

schizophrenic veterans amphetamine, even though central nervous system

stimulants worsen psychotic symptoms in 40 percent of schizophrenics

( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

Stress Disorder (press release)

In an experiment sponsored by the U.S. government, researchers

withhold medical treatment from HIV-positive African-American pregnant

women, giving them a placebo rather than AIDS medication (Sharav).

Researchers give amphetamine to 13 schizophrenic patients in a

repetition of the 1994 " amphetamine challenge " at New York VA

Hospital. As a result, the patients experience psychosis, delusions

and hallucinations. The researchers claim to have informed consent

( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " ).

On Sept. 18, victims of unethical medical experiments at major U.S.

research centers, including the National Institutes of Mental Health

(NIMH) testify before the National Bioethics Advisory Committee (Sharav).

(1999)

Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. testifies on " The Unethical Use of Human Beings

in High-Risk Research Experiments " before the U.S. House of

Representatives' House Committee on Veterans' Affairs, alerting the

House on the use of American veterans in VA Hospitals as human guinea

pigs and calling for national reforms ( " Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo,

Ph.D. " ).

Doctors at the University of Pennsylvania inject 18-year-old Jesse

Gelsinger with an experimental gene therapy as part of an FDA-approved

clinical trial. He dies four days later and his father suspects that

he was not fully informed of the experiment's risk (Goliszek)

During a clinical trial investigating the effectiveness of Propulsid

for infant acid reflux, nine-month-old Gage Stevens dies at Children's

Hospital in Pittsburgh (Sharav).

(2000)

The Department of Defense begins declassifying the records of Project

112, including SHAD, and locating and assisting the veterans who were

exposed to live toxins and chemical agents as part of Project 112.

Many of them have already died (Goliszek). Related article

New Study Shows Need for a Major Overhaul of How United States Manages

Chronic Illness (press release)

President Clinton authorizes the Energy Employees Occupational

Illness Compensation Act, which compensates the Department of Energy

workers who sacrificed their health to build the United States'

nuclear defenses (Sharav).

The U.S. Air Force and rocket maker Lockheed Martin sponsor a Loma

Linda University study that pays 100 Californians $1,000 to eat a dose

of perchlorate -- a toxic component of rocket fuel that causes cancer,

damages the thyroid gland and hinders normal development in children

and fetuses -- every day for six months. The dose eaten by the test

subjects is 83 times the safe dose of perchlorate set by the State of

California, which has perchlorate in some of its drinking water. This

Loma Linda study is the first large-scale study to use human subjects

to test the harmful effects of a water pollutant and is " inherently

unethical, " according to Environmental Working Group research director

Richard Wiles (Goliszek, Envirnomental Working Group).

(2001)

Healthy 27-year-old Ellen Roche dies in a challenge study at Johns

Hopkins University in Maryland (Sharav).

On its website, the FDA admits that its policy to include healthy

children in human experiments " has led to an increasing number of

proposals for studies of safety and pharmacokinetics, including those

in children who do not have the condition for which the drug is

intended " (Goliszek).

During a tobacco industry-financed Alzheimer's experiment at Case

Western University in Cleveland, Elaine Holden-Able dies after she

drinks a glass of orange juice containing a dissolved dietary

supplement (Sharav).

Radiologist Scott Scheer of Pennsylvania dies from kidney failure,

severe anemia and possibly lupus -- all caused by blood pressure drugs

he was taking as part of a five-year clinical trial. After his death,

his family sues the Institutional Review Board of Main Line Hospitals,

the hospital that oversaw the study, and two doctors. Investigators

from the federal Office for Human Research Protections, which is part

of the Department of Health and Human Services, later conclude in a

Dec. 20, 2002 letter to Scheer's oldest daughter: " Your father

apparently was not told about the risk of hydralazine-induced lupus …

OHRP found that certain unanticipated problems involving risks to

subjects or others were not promptly reported to appropriate

institutional officials " (Willen and Evans, " Doctor Who Died in Drug

Test Was Betrayed by System He Trusted. " )

Chronic Illness (press release)

In Higgins and Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute The Maryland Court

of Appeals makes a landmark decision regarding the use of children as

test subjects, prohibiting non-therapeutic experimentation on children

on the basis of " best interest of the individual child " (Sharav).

(2002)

President George W. Bush signs the Best Pharmaceuticals for Children

Act (BPCA), offering pharmaceutical companies six-month exclusivity in

exchange for running clinical drug trials on children. This will of

course increase the number of children used as human test subjects

(Hammer Breslow).

(2003)

Two-year-old Michael Daddio of Delaware dies of congestive heart

failure. After his death, his parents learn that doctors had performed

an experimental surgery on him when he was five months old, rather

than using the established surgical method of repairing his congenital

heart defect that the parents had been told would be performed. The

established procedure has a 90- to 95-percent success rate, whereas

the inventor of the procedure performed on baby Daddio would later be

fired from his hospital in 2004 (Willen and Evans, " Parents of Babies

Who Died in Delaware Tests Weren't Warned " ).

(2004)

In his BBC documentary " Guinea Pig Kids " and BBC News article of the

same name, reporter Jamie Doran reveals that children involved in the

New York City foster care system were unwitting human subjects in

experimental AIDS drug trials from 1988 to, in his belief, present

times (Doran).

(2005)

In response to the BBC documentary and article " Guinea Pig Kids " , the

New York City Administration of Children's Services (ACS) sends out an

Apr. 22 press release admitting that foster care children were used in

experimental AIDS drug trials, but says that the last trial took place

in 2001 and thus the trials are not continuing, as BBC reporter Jamie

Doran claims. The ACS gives the extent and statistics of the

experimental drug trials, based on its own records, and contracts the

Vera Institute of Justice to conduct " an independent review of ACS

policy and practice regarding the enrollment of HIV-positive children

in foster care in clinical drug trials during the late 1980s and

1990s " (New York City ACS). Related article

Is the American Cancer Society more interested in cancer profit than

cancer prevention?

In exchange for receiving $2 million from the American Chemical

Society, the EPA proposes the Children's Health Environmental Exposure

Research Study (CHEERS) to learn how children ranging from infancy to

three years old ingest, inhale and absorb chemicals by exposing

children from a poor, predominantly black area of Duval County, Fla.,

to these toxins. Due to pressure from activist groups, negative media

coverage and two Democratic senators, the EPA eventually decides to

drop the study on Apr. 8, 2005 (Organic Consumers Association).

Bloomberg releases a series of reports suggesting that SFBC, the

largest experimental drug testing center of its time, exploits

immigrant and other low-income test subjects and runs tests with

limited credibility due to violations of both the FDA's and SFBC's own

testing guidelines (Bloomberg).

Works cited:

Alliance for Human Research Protection. " 'Monster Experiment' Taught

Orphans to Stutter. " . June 11, 2001.

Barker, Allen. " The Cold War Experiments. " Mind Control.

Berdon, Victoria. " Codes of Medical and Human Experimentation Ethics. "

The Least of My Brothers.

Brinker, Wendy. " James Marion Sims: Father Butcher. " Seed Show.

Burton Report. " Human Experimentation, Plutonium and Col. Stafford

Warren. "

Cockburn, Alexander and Jeffrey St. Clair, eds. " Germ War: The U.S.

Record. " Counter Punch.

" Donald Ewan [sic] Cameron. " Wikipedia.

Doran, Jamie. " Guinea Pig Kids. " BBC News. 30 Nov. 2004.

cancer prevention?

Drug Development-Technology.com. " SFBC. "

Elliston, Jon. " MKULTRA: CIA Mind Control. " Dossier: Paranormal

Government.

Environmental Working Group. " U.S.: Lockheed Martin's Tests on

Humans. " CorpWatch.

Global Security. Chemical Corps. 2005.

Goliszek, Andrew. In the Name of Science. New York: St. Martin's, 2003.

Greger, Michael, M.D. Heart Failure: Diary of a Third Year Medical

Student.

Griffiths, Joel and Chris Bryson. " Toxic Secrets: Fluoride and the

Atom Bomb. " Nexus Magazine 5:3. Apr. - May 1998.

Hammer Breslow, Lauren. " The Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act of

2002: The Rise of the Voluntary Incentive Structure and Congressional

Refusal to Require Pediatric Testing. " Harvard Journal of Legislation

Vol. 40.

" Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and After. " Micah Books.

Kaye, Jonathan. " Retin-A's Wrinkled Past. " Mind Control. Orig. pub.

Penn History Review Spring 1997.

" Manhattan Project: Oak Ridge. " World Socialist Web Site. Oct. 18, 2002.

Meiklejohn, Gordon N., M.D. " Commission on Influenza. " Histories of

the Commissions. Ed. Theodore E. Woodward, M.D. The Armed Forced

Epidemiological Board. 1994.

cancer prevention?

Merritte, LaTasha, et al.. " The Banality of Evil: Human Medical

Experimentation in the United States. " The Public Law Online Journal.

Spring 1999.

Milgram, Stanley. " Milgram Experiment. " Wikipedia. 2006.

New York City Administration of Children's Services. Press release. 22

Apr. 2005.

" Operation Plumbbob. " Wikipedia. 2005.

" Operation Whitecoat. " Religion and Ethics (Episode no. 708). Oct. 24,

2003.

Organic Consumers Association. " EPA and Chemical Industry to Study the

Effects of Known Toxic Chemicals on Children " . 12 Apr. 2005.

Pacchioli, David. Subjected to Science. Mar. 1996.

" Placebo Effect. " Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. 2006.

" Project Paperclip. " Wikipedia. 2005.

" Reviews and Notes: History of Medicine: Subjected to Science: Human

Experimentation in America before the Second World War. " Annals of

Internal Medicine 123:2. July 15, 1995.

Sharav, Vera Hassner. " Human Experiments: A Chronology of Human

Rsearch. " Alliance for Human Research Protection.

Sauter, Daniel. Guide to MS 83 [Planned Parenthood of San Antonio and

South Central Texas Records, 1931 - 1999]. University of Texas

Library. Apr. 2001.

" Testimony of Adil E. Shamoo, Ph.D. " News from the Joint Hearing on

Suspension of Medical Research at West Los Angeles and Sepulveda VA

Medical Facilities and Informed Consent and Patient Safety in VA

Medical Research. 21 Apr. 1999.

cancer prevention?

University of New Hampshire. " Chronology of Cases Involving Unethical

Treatment of Human Subjects. " Responsible Conduct of Research.

University of Virginia Health System Health Sciences Library. " Bad

Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study. " 2004.

U.S. Department of Energy. " Chapter 8: Postwar TBI-Effects

Experimentation: Continued Reliance on Sick Patients in Place of

Healthy " Normals. " Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments

(ACHRE) Final Report.

Veterans Health Administration. Project 112/Project SHAD. May 26, 2005.

Willen, Liz and David Evans. " Doctor Who Died in Drug Test Was

Betrayed by System He Trusted. " Bloomberg. Nov. 2, 2005.

---. " Parents of Babies Who Died in Delaware Tests Weren't Warned. "

Bloomberg. Nov. 2, 2005.

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