Why you should think twice about eating farmed salmon

[Guest guest]

Why you should think twice about eating " farmed " salmon JoAnn Guest Jun 03,

2005 14:57 PDT

http://www.farmedanddangerous.org/salmonfarming/index.html

 

A study released in the journal Environmental Science & Technology found

much higher levels of some chemical flame retardants in farmed salmon

compared to most wild salmon. The study concluded that, in spite of the

heart healthy benefits of omega-3 fatty acids in all salmon, frequent

consumption of farmed salmon is more likely than wild to boost levels of

chemicals that researchers have found to be increasing rapidly in

people's bodies.

 

 

The groundbreaking study, " A Global Assessment of Organic Contaminants

in Farmed vs. Wild Salmon: Geographical Differences and Health Risks "

was released January 2004 in the respected journal Science. The study,

which is being considered the most thorough analysis of farmed and wild

salmon to date, found in most cases that consuming more than one serving

of farmed salmon per month could pose unacceptable cancer risks,

according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

standards for determining safe fish consumption levels. Farmed salmon

were found to have up to 10 times higher levels of PCBs and dioxins than

wild salmon.

 

 

Farmed salmon is much higher in saturated fats than wild salmon. This

can contribute to health problems.

 

 

A single serving of salmon, wild or farmed, gives you the suggested

daily requirement of omega 3 fatty acids. These essential fatty acids

are also found in other wild fish like tuna, sardines or anchovies.

Farmed salmon, however, contains more unhealthy fats. Preliminary

research also shows that farmed salmon has higher levels of PCBs and

other contaminants than wild salmon Farmed salmon are frequently fed

antibiotics which contribute to the growth of drug-resistant bacteria.

 

 

Farmed salmon are often given additives in their food to colour their

flesh pink with chemicals to resemble its wild counterparts - otherwise,

it would remain an unappetizing grayish-brown color.

 

 

In BC, over 70% of farmed salmon are Atlantic salmon. Atlantic salmon

are considered exotic (non-native, or alien) species in Pacific waters

since they do not naturally occur in the Pacific Ocean.

 

 

With only a very few exceptions, farmed salmon are raised in open net

cages in the ocean. These nets can tear, allowing farmed salmon to

escape into the wild. Over a million farmed salmon have been reported by

the industry to have escaped into Pacific waters since 1988; because

many escapes over the years have gone unreported, experts believe the

real figure is much higher.

 

 

According to the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Atlantic salmon

have been found in over 81 BC rivers and streams. It is worth noting

that only a small portion of BC rivers have been surveyed so far -

meaning non-native Atlantic salmon could be inhabiting many more.

 

 

Atlantic salmon compete with wild salmon for habitat and have been known

to eat wild salmon fry and eggs. Atlantic salmon have been found

spawning, and juveniles surviving in the wild.

 

 

There are risks even whe native Pacific salmon escape into the wild.

Escaped farmed chinook can interbreed with wild chinook. Since farmed

salmon are cultivated from a limited gene pool, this interbreeding leads

to " genetic dilution " , or a narrowing of the genetic makeup in wild fish

- which could lessen their ability to survive in the wild.

 

 

Open netcage systems can allow for the transfer of disease and parasites

from farms to wild salmon.

 

Click here to link to Watershed Watch report ( )

 

 

Salmon farmers are granted licenses to kill predators such as sea lions

and seals to stop them eating their fish. In the spring of 2001 a mass

grave containing at least 15 sea lions killed by a farm operator was

discovered in Clayoquot Sound. Since then, more pits of dead sea lions

have been found in the same area. BC salmon farmers reported having

killed at least 5000 seals and sea lions in the last decade. The real

figure could be much higher as some kills according to fish farm

employees go unreported.

 

 

The mass worldwide production of salmon in fish farms has caused a drop

in wild salmon prices. This has hurt thousands of commercial fishermen

and their communities in which they live and support, drawing into

question the true economic value of this industry.

 

 

It takes three to five kilograms of other fish, such as herring and

anchovy to make the feed necessary to produce one kilogram of farmed

salmon resulting a loss of edible animal protein worldwide.

 

 

In Canada it is illegal to make animal feed out of proteins otherwise

suitable for human consumption As a result most of the feed for BC

salmon is obtained from South America. This reduces the amount of food

energy available to people there.

 

 

To fatten up their livestock, some salmon farmers use bright lights even

at night to confuse the salmon into thinking it is always feeding time.

This attracts other fish to the farm area and may disrupt their feeding

and migration patterns.

 

 

In B.C. fish farms use net guards that deter predators. Some farmers

coat the nets in a highly toxic solution to prevent naturally occurring

marine organisms from growing on them. This toxic solution contaminates

our waters.

 

There are presently over 85 open net cage fish farms currently operating

in the coastal waters of British Columbia producing waste that is

equivalent in volume to the raw sewage released from a city of 500,000

inhabitants.

 

It could get a lot worse if industry is allowed to add new farms.

 

Is there any nutritional difference between wild-caught and farm-raised

fish? Is one type better for me than the other?

 

Overview

From both a nutritional and environmental impact perspective, farmed

fish are far inferior to their wild counterparts:

 

• Despite being much fattier, farmed fish provide less usable beneficial

omega 3 fats than wild fish.

 

• Due to the feedlot conditions of aquafarming, farm-raised fish are

doused with antibiotics and exposed to more concentrated pesticides than

their wild kin. Farmed salmon, in addition, are given a salmon-colored

dye in their feed, without which, their flesh would be an unappetizing

grey color.

 

• Aquafarming also raises a number of environmental concerns.

 

Nutritional Differences

Omega 3 Fat Content

FDA statistics on the nutritional content (protein and fat-ratios) of

farm versus wild salmon show that:

 

• The fat content of farmed salmon is excessively high--30-35% by

weight.

 

• Wild salmon have a 20% higher protein content and a 20% lower fat

content than farm-raised salmon.

 

• Farm-raised fish contain much higher amounts of pro-inflammatory omega

6 fats than wild fish.

 

These unfortunate statistics are confirmed in a recent (1988-1990) study

conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to compare the

nutrient profiles of the leading species of wild and cultivated fish and

shellfish. Three species of fish that contain beneficial omega 3 fats

were included: catfish, rainbow trout, and coho salmon.

 

Farm-raised Fish are Fattier

In all three species, the farm-raised fish were fattier. Not surprising

since farm-raised fish do not spend their lives vigorously swimming

through cold ocean waters or leaping up rocky streams. Marine couch

potatoes, they circle lazily in crowded pens fattening up on pellets of

fish chow.

 

In each of the species evaluated by the USDA, the farm-raised fish were

found to contain more total fat than their wild counterparts. For

rainbow trout, the difference in total fat (5.4g/100g in wild trout vs.

4.6 g/100g in cultivated trout) was the smallest, while cultivated

catfish had nearly five times as much fat as wild (11.3g/100 g in

cultivated vs. 2.3 g/100g in wild). Farm-raised coho salmon had

approximately 2.7 times the total fat as wild samples.

 

Cultivated catfish were the worst, with 5 times the fat content of their

wild counterparts. Plus, although the farm-raised catfish, rainbow trout

and coho salmon contained as much or even more omega-3 fatty acids as

their wild equivalents, in proportion to the amount of omega 6 fats they

also contained, they actually provided less usable omega 3s.

 

Farm-raised Fish Provide Less Usable Omega-3 Fats

The reason for this apparent discrepancy is that both omega 3 and omega

6 fats use the same enzymes for conversion into the forms in which they

are active in the body. The same elongase and desaturase enzymes that

convert omega-3 fats into their beneficial anti-inflammatory forms (the

series 3 prostaglandins and the less inflammatory thromboxanesand

leukotriennes) also convert omega-6 fats into their pro-inflammatory

forms (the series 2 prostaglandins and the pro-inflammatory thromboxanes

and leukotrienes). So, when a food is eaten that contains high amounts

of omega 6s in proportion to its content of omega 3s, the omega-6 fats

use up the available conversion enzymes to produce pro-inflammatory

compounds while preventing the manufacture of anti-inflammatory

substances from omega-3s, even when these beneficial fats are present.

 

Farm-raised Fish Contain More Pro-inflammatory Omega-6 Fats

In all three types of fish, the amount of omega 6 fats was substantially

higher in farm-raised compared to wild fish. Cultivated trout, in

particular, had much higher levels of one type of omega 6 fat called

linoleic acid than wild trout (14% in farm-raised compared to 5% in wild

samples). The total of all types of omega 6 fats found in cultivated

fish was twice the level found in the wild samples (14% vs 7%,

respectively).

 

Wild Fish Provide More Omega-3 Fats

In all three species evaluated, the wild fish were found to have a

higher proportion of omega -3 fats in comparison to omega 6 fats than

the cultivated fish. The wild coho were not only much lower in overall

fat content, but also were found to have 33% more omega 3 fatty acids

than their farm-raised counterparts. Omega 3s accounted for 29% of the

fats in wild coho versus 19% of the fats in cultivated coho. Rainbow

trout showed similar proportions in fatty acid content; wild trout

contained approximately 33% more omega 3s than cultivated trout, however

both cultivated and wild trout did have much lower amounts of omega 6

fats than the other types of fish.

 

Antibiotic and Pesticide Use

Disease and parasites, which would normally exist in relatively low

levels in fish scattered around the oceans, can run rampant in densely

packed oceanic feedlots. To survive, farmed fish are vaccinated as small

fry. Later, they are given antibiotics or pesticides to ward off

infection.

 

Sea lice, in particular, are a problem. In a recent L.A. Times story,

Alexandra Morton, an independent biologist and critic of salmon farms,

is quoted as beginning to see sea lice in 2001 when a fisherman brought

her two baby pink salmon covered with them. Examining more than 700 baby

pink salmon around farms, she found that 78 percent were covered with a

fatal load of sea lice while juvenile salmon she netted farther from the

farms were largely lice-free.

 

While salmon farmers have discounted Morton’s concerns saying that sea

lice are also found in the wild, at the first sign of an outbreak, they

add the pesticide emamectin benzoate to the feed. According to

officials, the use of pesticides should pose no problem for consumers

since Canadian rules demand that pesticide use be stopped 25 days before

harvest to ensure all residues are flushed from the fish.

 

Scientists in the United States are far more concerned about two

preliminary studies—one in British Columbia and one in Great

Britain—both of which showed farmed salmon accumulate more

cancer-causing PCBs and toxic dioxins than wild salmon. The reason for

this pesticide concentration is the salmon feed. Pesticides, including

those now outlawed in the United States, have circulated into the ocean

where they are absorbed by marine life and accumulate in their fat,

which is distilled into the concentrated fish oil that is a major

ingredient in salmon feed. Salmon feed contains higher concentrations of

fish oil—extracted from sardines, anchovies and other ground-up

fish—than wild salmon normally consume. Scientists in the U.S. are

currently trying to determine the extent of the pesticide contamination

in farmed salmon and what levels are safe for human consumption.

 

 

 

Research on this issue published July 30, 2003, by the Environmental

Working Group, indicates that levels of carcinogenic chemicals called

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) found in farmed salmon purchased from

U.S. grocery stores are so much higher than levels of PCBs found in wild

salmon that they pose an increased risk for cancer. PCBs have been

banned in the US for use in all but completely closed areas since 1979,

but they persist in the environment and end up in animal fat. When

farmed salmon from U.S. grocery stores was tested, the farmed salmon,

which contains up to twice the fat of wild salmon, was found to contain

16 times the PCBs found in wild salmon, 4 times the levels in beef, and

3.4 times the levels found in other seafood. Other studies done in

Canada, Ireland and Britain have produced similar findings.(September 8,

2003)

 

 

 

Flame Retardants: Another Reason to Avoid Farmed Salmon

Flame-retardant additives used widely in electronics and furniture are

appearing in increasing amounts in fish, and farmed salmon contain

significantly higher levels of these polybrominated diphenyl ether

(PBDE) compounds than wild salmon, according to research published in

the August 11, 2004 issue of Environmental Science and Technology.

 

PBDEs are endocrine disrupters that have been shown to have reproductive

toxicity, and are also suspected to play a role in cancer formation. As

with other toxins, it is thought that farm-raised salmon contain higher

PBDE levels than wild due to the " salmon chow, " a mixture of ground fish

and oil, they are fed.

 

The authors of this new study, Ronald Hites of Indiana University and

colleagues, analyzed the same group of 700 wild and farmed salmon

collected from around the world from which the data was drawn for their

initial research on other contaminants in salmon, which was published in

Science in January 2004.

 

As was the case with the 14 contaminants described in the earlier

report—which included pesticides such as toxaphene and dieldrin—the

researchers found the highest levels of PBDEs, on average, in

farm-raised salmon from Europe. But while European farmed salmon had the

highest levels, farmed North American salmon came next with

significantly higher amounts of PBDEs than were found in farmed salmon

from Chile, which, in turn, were higher than the average levels seen in

wild salmon.

 

In both farmed and wild salmon, approximately 50% of the total PBDEs

were in the form of one compound: brominated diphenyl ether (BDE) 47.

This chemical is associated with the Penta formulation used in

polyurethane foam in furniture, which, together with another formulation

known as Octa, has been banned in Europe and is being discontinued in

the United States. Unfortunately, (BDE) 47 can also be derived from the

breakdown of the Deca formulation, which is extensively used in Europe

with no plans to discontinue its use either there or in the U.S.

 

Researchers both in Europe and the U.S. think the problem is not just in

the " salmon chow " , but the environment as a whole and that PBDEs are

probably reaching the open ocean and getting into the marine food web

through atmospheric deposition.

 

To underscore this point, Åke Bergman of Stockholm University’s

department of environmental chemistry, one of the first scientists to

present evidence that PBDEs were bioaccumulating in humans, says he has

found the PBDE levels in wild European salmon are on a par with those

Hites has reported for farmed European salmon.

 

And the environmental contamination is not limited to Europe. Wild

chinook salmon from British Columbia were found to have the highest

levels of PBDE contamination of any of the salmon Hites tested. He

thinks this may be due to the chinooks' tendency to feed higher in the

food chain throughout their adult life, eating mainly fish, unlike other

salmon species that tend to consume more invertebrates and plankton.

 

On the other hand, wild Alaskan Chinook tested in Hites' study contained

significantly lower PBDE levels, suggesting that the waters the wild

chinook inhabit are more contaminated.

 

Surprisingly, the PBDE content patterns seen in the world's salmon do

not match up with the levels found in people; samples of blood and fat

from North Americans contain levels 10 times higher, on average, than

Europeans, another reason to think some other source of exposure is also

at work. Bergman thinks the high U.S. levels are due to inhalation of

these substances.

 

What you can do: Beginning September 2004, U.S. supermarkets are

required to label salmon as farmed or wild. We suggest that you choose

wild, rather than farmed salmon, and if purchasing chinook salmon,

choose Alaskan chinook.(October 10, 2004)

 

Synthetic Pigment Colors Flesh Pink

In the wild, salmon absorb carotenoids from eating pink krill. On the

aquafarm, their rich pink hue is supplied by canthaxanthin, a synthetic

pigment manufactured by Hoffman-La Roche. Fish farmers can choose just

what shade of peach their fish will display from the pharmaceutical

company’s trademarked SalmoFan, a color swatch similar to those you’d

find in a paint store. Without help from Hoffman LaRoche, the flesh of

farmed salmon would be a pale halibut grey.

 

European health officials have debated whether the canthaxanthin added

to the feed to give farmed salmon their pink hue poses any human health

risk. Canthaxanthin was linked to retinal damage in people when taken as

a sunless tanning pill, leading the British to ban its use as a tanning

agent. (In the U.S., it’s still available.)

 

As for its use in animal feed, European health officials have debated

whether the canthaxanthin added to the feed to give farmed salmon their

pink hue poses any human health risk. The European Commission Scientific

Committee on Animal Nutrition (SCAN) issued a warning several years ago

about the pigment and urged the industry to find an alternative. In

2002, SCAN reviewed the maximum levels of canthaxanthin in fish feeds

and determined that the allowable level of 80 milligrams of

canthaxanthin per kilogram in feed was too high, and that consumers who

ate large amounts of salmon were likely to exceed the Acceptable Daily

Intake of 0.03 milligrams per kilogram human body weight. In 1997, the

EU’s Scientific Committee on Food recognized a link between

canthaxanthin intake and retinal problems, so in April 2002, SCAN

suggested lowering the level of canthaxanthin to 25 milligrams per

kilogram in feed for salmonids (baby salmon). To date, no government has

banned canthaxanthin from animal feed.

 

Canthaxanthin was linked to retinal damage in people when taken as a

sunless tanning pill, leading the British to ban its use as a tanning

agent. (In the U.S., it’s still available.) Consumed In high amounts,

canthaxanthin can produce an accumulation of pigments in the retina of

the eye and adversely affect sight.

 

Environmental Impact of Farm-raised Fish

A Threat to Small Commercial Fisheries

Salmon farmed in open pen nets are now the source of 50% of the world’s

salmon (hatchery fish account for about 30%, and wild fish provide the

remaining 20%). Flooding the market with fish-farm salmon has resulted

in a drop in the fisherman’s asking price for wild salmon—a price

decrease that has forced many small fishing boats off the water.

 

Polluting the Immediate Environment

Aquafarms, called “floating pig farms,” by Daniel Pauly, professor of

fisheries at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, put a

significant strain upon their surrounding environment. According to

Pauly, " They consume a tremendous amount of highly concentrated protein

pellets and they make a terrific mess. "

 

Uneaten feed and fish waste blankets the sea floor beneath these farms,

a breeding ground for bacteria that consume oxygen vital to shellfish

and other bottom-dwelling sea creatures. A good sized salmon farm

produces an amount of excrement equivalent to the sewage of a city of

10,000 people.

 

Polluting the Food Chain

Sulfa drugs and tetracycline are used to prevent infectious disease

epidemics in the dense aquafarm populations are added to food pellet

mixes along with, in farm-raised salmon, the orange dye canthaxanthin,

to color their otherwise grey flesh. These food additives drift to the

ocean bottom below the open net pens where they are invariably recycled

into our food stream.

 

A Threat to Wild Fish

Pesticides fed to the fish and toxic copper sulfate used to keep nets

free of algae are building up in sea-floor sediments. Antibiotic use has

resulted in the development of resistant strains that can infect not

only farm-raised but wild fish as they swim past. Sea lice that infest

captive fish beset wild salmon as they swim past on their migration to

the ocean.

 

Perhaps the most serious concern is a problem fish farms were meant to

alleviate: the depletion of marine life from over-fishing. Salmon

aquafarming increases the depletion because captive salmon, unlike

vegetarian catfish which thrive on grains, are carnivores and must be

fed fish during the 2-3 year period when they are raised to a marketable

size. To produce one pound of farmed salmon, 2.4 to 4 pounds of wild

sardines, anchovies, mackerel, herring and other fish must be ground up

to render the oil and meal that is compressed into pellets of salmon

chow.

 

Similar to the raising of cattle, farming fish creates a problematic

redistribution of protein in the food system. Removing such immense

amounts of small prey fish from an ecosystem can significantly upset its

balance. According to Rosamond L. Naylor, an agricultural economist at

Stanford's Center for Environmental Science and Policy, " We are not

taking strain off wild fisheries. We are adding to it. This cannot be

sustained forever. "

 

A Threat to Other Marine Life

Other reported environmental impacts from salmon aquaculture include

seabirds ensnared in protective netting and sea lions shot for preying

on penned fish. Penned salmon also directly threaten their wild

counterparts, preying on migrating smolts (immature wild salmon) as they

journey to the sea and competing for the krill and herring that nourish

wild fish before their final journey home to their spawning grounds.

Escapes of farm fish also create problems by competing with wild fish

for habitat, spawning grounds and food sources. (About 1 million

Atlantic’s have escaped through holes in nets from storm-wracked farms

in the Pacific Northwest’s Puget Sound)

 

A Threat to Biodiversity

The interbreeding of wild and farm stocks also poses a threat of

dilution to the wild salmon gene pool.

 

Biologists fear these invaders will out-compete Pacific salmon and trout

for food and territory, hastening the demise of the native fish. An

Atlantic salmon takeover could knock nature's balance out of whack and

turn a healthy, diverse marine habitat into one dominated by a single

invasive species.

 

Recently, Aqua Bounty Farms Inc., of Waltham, Mass., has begun seeking

U.S. and Canadian approval to alter genes to produce a growth hormone

that could shave a year off the usual 2.5 to three years it takes to

raise a market-size fish. The prospect of genetically modified salmon

that can grow six times faster than normal fish has heightened anxiety

that these " frankenfish " will escape and pose an even greater danger to

native species than do the Atlantic salmon.

 

A Possible Contributor to Antibiotic Resistance

Rearing fish in such high densities present problems. Infectious disease

outbreaks pose financial threats to operators so vaccines and

antibiotics are often used to prevent potential epidemics. Sulfa drugs

and tetracycline are often added to food pellet mixes as well as

canthaxanthin (an orange dye) to impart a rich red-orange color to an

otherwise pale gray flesh. Antibiotics are also given to speed growth

and increase profits.

 

In some of the more progressive salmon-rearing operations, fish farmers

are raising their Chinook and other species in closed, floating pens so

that antibiotics and other wastes can be filtered from the water before

it’s released back into the environment.

 

In the majority of aquafarms, however, these drugs and additives, which

quickly build up in the sediment, -will invariably find their way into

our food stream. In a paper published in 2002, Bent Halling-Sørensen and

his colleagues at the Royal Danish School of Pharmacy noted that one

such growth-promoting antibiotic—oxytetracycline—has been found in the

sediment of fish-farming sites at concentrations of up to 4.9 milligrams

per kilogram. These scientists are concerned that " Antibiotic resistance

in sediment bacteria are often found in locations with fish farms " —and

may play a growing role in the development of antibiotic resistant germs

generally. Should their fears be true, aquafaming may be eroding the

efficacy of life-saving drugs, argues Stuart Levy, the director of the

Center for Adaptation Genetics and Drug Resistance at the Tufts Medical

School in Boston.

 

Which type of wild salmon should I purchase? Which is best, both for me

and for the environment?

When buying salmon, we suggest that you ask for line-caught Alaskan fish

first. The healthiest populations and habitats exist in Alaska. In fact,

due to the successful efforts of conserving and protecting wild salmon

habitats, the Alaska Salmon Fishery recently received the Marine

Stewardship Council’s label for sustainability.

 

Fresh-caught, wild salmon is available nearly eight months of the year,

with high quality " frozen at sea " (FAS) line-caught fish available

during the interim. The Marine Stewardship Council’s labels are designed

to guide consumers to species that are not being over-harvested.

 

Plus, in a recent blind taste test hosted by Chefs Collaborative in May

2000, at the French Culinary Institute in New York City, wild Alaskan

Coho salmon, frozen at sea, ranked first in flavor, texture and aroma..

Wild Oregon Chinook (also called King) salmon, fresh, came in a close

second.

 

Fresh wild salmon too expensive for your tastes? A recent Newsweek

article notes that canned salmon will not only cost you less, but is

always wild.

 

One caveat: Fresh “Atlantic” salmon is generally farm-raised—the name

refers to the species, not the fish’s origin.

 

Essential Fatty Acid Ratios in Wild and Farmed Fish

100 grams (3.5 ounces fresh filet of: Total Omega 3 Fats Total Omega 6

Fats Ratio of Omega 3 to Omega 6 Fats*

Wild Coho Salmon 0.92 grams .06 grams 15.3

Farmed Coho Salmon 1.42 grams 0.46 grams 3.1

Wild Rainbow Trout .77 grams .33 grams 2.3

Farmed Rainbow Trout 1.00 grams .71 grams 1.4

Wild Channel Catfish .29 grams .24 grams 1.2

Farmed Channel Catfish .37 grams 1.56 grams .2

 

*The higher the ratio of omega 3 to omega 6 fats, the more able the body

is to use the omega 3 fats. A lower ratio means that the enzymes that

convert these fats into the forms in which they are active in the body

are more likely to be used up by the omega 6 fats.

 

Table Reference:

 

Nettleton JA. (2000). Fatty Acids in Cultivated and Wild Fish. Presented

paper, International Institute of Fisheries, Economics and Trade

(IIFET), IIFET 2000 Conference: Microbehavior and Macroresults. Oregon

State University, Corvallis, OR, July 10-14, 2000.

 

Some Differences in Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals between Wild and

Farmed and Fish

Contaminant Farmed Wild Type of Fish

Tributyltin (pesticide, used to keep barnacles and algae off the paint

used on hulls of ships 39 micrograms 28 micrograms mussels

Dibutyltin 26 micrograms (maximum observed amount) 4 micrograms (maximum

observed amount mussels

PCBs (symthetic coolants 146-460 ppb salmon

 

Table References:

 

Amodio-Cocchieri, R.; Cirillo, T.; Amorena, M.; Cavaliere, M.; Lucisano,

A., and Del Prete, U. Alkyltins in farmed fish and shellfish. Int J Food

Sci Nutr. 2000 May; 51(3):147-51.

 

Jacobs, M. N.; Covaci, A., and Schepens, P. Investigation of selected

persistent organic pollutants in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar),

salmon aquaculture feed, and fish oil components of the feed. Environ

Sci Technol 2002 Jul 1; 36(13):2797-805.

 

Rueda, F. M.; Hernandez, M. D.; Egea, M. A.; Aguado, F.; Garcia, B., and

Martinez, F. J. Differences in tissue fatty acid composition between

reared and wild sharpsnout sea bream, Diplodus puntazzo (Cetti, 1777).

Br J Nutr. 2001 Nov; 86(5):617-22.

 

REFERENCES

Adler J. The Great Salmon Debate, Newsweek, October 28, 2002

 

Nettleton JA. (2000). Fatty Acids in Cultivated and Wild Fish. Presented

paper, International Institute of Fisheries, Economics and Trade

(IIFET), IIFET 2000 Conference: Microbehavior and Macroresults. Oregon

State University, Corvallis, OR, July 10-14, 2000.

 

Analysis of PCBs in Farmed versus Wild Salmon. Environmental Working

Group, July 30, 2003.

 

Betts K. Salmon flame retardant research raises new questions. Science

News Environmental Science and Technology, August 11, 2004.

 

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, US Department of Agriculture and

US Department of Health and Human Services, Nutrition and Your Health:

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Washington, DC: US Government Printing

Office, 2000.

 

George R, Bhopal R. Fat composition of free living and farmed sea

species: implications for human diet and sea-farming techniques, Br.

Food J. 97:19-22, 1995.

 

Harvey D., Aquaculture outlook, in Aquaculture Outlook, Economic

Research Service, U.S. Dept. Agriculture: Washington, DC, October, 1999.

 

 

Hites RA, Foran JA, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, Knuth BA, Schwager SJ.

Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science.

2004 Jan 9;303(5655):226-9.

 

Nettleton, J.A. and Exler, J., Nutrients in wild and farmed fish and

shellfish, J. Food Sci. 57: 257-260, 1992.

 

Simopoulos, A.P., Leaf, A. and Salem, N. Jr., Essentiality of and

Recommended Dietary Intakes for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Ann.

Nutr. Metab. 43:127-130, 1999.

 

van Vliet T. and Katan M.B., Lower ratio of n-3 to n-6 fatty acids in

cultured than wild fish, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51:1-2, 1990.

 

Weiss K. Fish farms become feedlots of the sea. L. A. Times, Dec. 9,

2002.

 

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JoAnn Guest

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