Evening Primrose Oil

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Evening Primrose Oil

 

A Supplement for Health and Beauty

 

Author: Tori Hudson, ND

Source: Bioriginal Publishing

Date Published: October 2000

 

The evening primrose plant (Oenothera biennis) has been commonly known as " tree

primrose " and " sun drop " . Evening primrose can be found in many parts of North

America and is native in the north temperate zone, especially at high altitudes.

The native people of North America as well as the English and pilgrims, were

well aware of the healing properties of the leaves and bark as an astringent,

sedative and nervine (a herb that affects the nerves and includes relaxants,

tonics and even stimulants). It was often used for stomach and liver complaints,

coughs and female disorders. Even the roots were eaten as a vegetable. The seeds

were recommended as a coffee substitute in wartime and have a strong flavor

similar to poppy seed oil. The therapeutic value of the seed oil is a more

recent discovery. It is this seed oil, and its essential fatty acid content,

that holds the most interest today in maintaining health and preventing disease.

 

Evening primrose oil is an oil rich in essential fatty acids ‹ polyunsaturated

fats that are as essential as vitamins and minerals for the maintenance of good

health. The oil contains 74 percent linolenic acid (LA) and 8-10 percent gamma

linolenic acid (GLA). Although other oils such as borage oil and black currant

oil contain higher amounts of GLA, evening primrose oil is by far the most

popular and familiar source of this fatty acid. Evening primrose oil also

contains 11 percent oleic acid, 6 percent palmitic acid, and 2 percent stearic

acid.

 

Under ideal conditions, the body uses LA to produce GLA. In turn, GLA is used to

produce beneficial hormone-like compounds called prostaglandins. Specifically,

GLA is used to produce series one prostaglandins such as prostaglandin E1

(PGE1).

 

Prostaglandins affect the function of virtually every system in the body ‹ these

molecules are used in the regulation of inflammation, pain, blood pressure,

fluid balance, and blood clotting. Prostaglandins also affect hormone production

and function.

 

The key to understanding the important need for supplementing with oils rich in

GLA, such as evening primrose oil, is that many of us cannot convert LA to GLA

efficiently. Dietary deficiencies, disease conditions, processed oils, trans

fatty acids, heated oils, alcohol, aging, viral infections and sugar consumption

block, slow down, or interfere with the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of

LA to GLA. The result is that virtually all North Americans are deficient in

GLA. Supplementing with evening primrose oil can enrich the body¹s GLA supply

and restore the production of beneficial prostaglandins derived from GLA.

Research completed over the last 20 years has confirmed that supplementation

with evening primrose oil has beneficial effects in numerous diseases and

conditions.

 

Health problems supported and/or suggested by scientific trials using evening

primrose oil include premenstrual syndrome, fibrocystic breast pain, eczema,

rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis and ulcerative

colitis. Other conditions for which it may provide benefit include menopause and

pregnancy.

 

Prementrual Syndrome

PMS has been linked to excessive and incorrect prostaglandin production. Women

with PMS may have a deficiency of prostaglandin E1 at the central nervous

system1 and in other tissue such as breast tissue. Supplementing with GLA may

raise the body¹s production of this prostaglandin. The most popular and

scientifically documented method is to supplement with GLA in the form of

evening primrose oil. Rigorous scientific studies have demonstrated that

supplementing with evening primrose oil has a significant effect on symptoms of

PMS.2, 3, 4 Evening primrose oil has been shown to improve symptoms including

premenstrual headaches, depression, irritability, and bloating. Evening primrose

oil also dramatically relieves premenstrual breast pain and tenderness.

 

Breast Health

The pain and tenderness associated with premenstrual breast pain and fibrocystic

breasts has been alleviated with evening primrose oil in more than one

scientific study.5, 6 In 1985, when 291 women took three grams per day of

evening primrose oil for three to six months, almost half of the 92 women with

cyclic breast pain experienced improvement compared with one-fifth of the

patients who received the placebo. In the course of treatment, it has been

detected that women with breast pain have unusually low concentrations of GLA

and metabolites from GLA. When patients receive supplements of evening primrose

oil, the concentration of GLA metabolites increases and the concentration of

saturated fats in the breast decreases. This may also have long term

implications for prevention of breast diseases such as breast cancer.

 

Menopause

Evening primrose oil and other oils containing GLA are popularly consumed by

women to decrease the symptoms of menopause. GLA in the form of evening primrose

oil has been found to reduce the maximum number of nighttime flushes associated

with menopause. However, there was no overall difference between the supplement

and the placebo.7 Many other herbal supplements are available to relieve

menopausal symptoms and these may be used in conjunction with EFAs for greater

benefit.

 

Pregnancy and Fetal Development

Essential fatty acids have a unique role during pregnancy because of the rapid

development of new cell growth, new tissues, and new organ systems in a

developing fetus. Fetal development is associated with a high EFA requirement,

and this supply is dependent on the amount and availability of EFAs from the

mother.

 

Prostaglandins are also involved in the development and clinical expression of

pre-eclampsia (the simultaneous occurrence of the clinical triad of

hypertension, edema and protein in the urine at any time during the course of

the pregnancy). These prostaglandins are modulators of vascular smooth muscle

tone and platelet aggregation (blood platelets sticking together). Pre-eclampsia

is characterized by increased vasoconstriction, frequently associated with

increased platelet aggregation, reduced uteroplacental blood flow, and premature

delivery. In a placebo-controlled clinical trial, a group of pregnant women

receiving a combination of evening primrose oil and fish had a significantly

lower incidence of edema.8

 

Skin Health

Nutritional supplementation with GLA is one of the most important tools in

treating eczema. GLA also helps moisturize the skin and protect it from

environmental oxidative damage. There have been many scientific studies using

GLA with excellent benefits in improving the symptoms of eczema.9, 10, 11, 12

Dosages in the range of 0.5 to 3 grams of GLA are appropriate. Both evening

primrose oils and borage oil have been used in these studies.

 

Arthritis

Many studies on GLA have shown that individuals with rheumatoid arthritis

experience significant improvements in their symptoms within the first six

months of use. They also continue to improve by as much as 50 percent in the

number of tender joints, 54 percent in the reduction of tender joints, and 42

percent in the reduction in swollen joints. Overall, morning stiffness can

decrease on average by 67 percent, and pain can be reduced on average by 27

percent.13, 14 Studies using evening primrose oil also consistently show that

individuals using 1.5 to 2.8 grams of GLA daily can reduce their use of

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications.

 

Although there have been no human trials to date studying the effects of GLA on

other forms of arthritis such as osteoarthritis, animal studies do show that GLA

supplementation can have anti-inflammatory effects. Practitioners of natural

medicine report that they see positive benefits using evening primrose oil

supplements in osteoarthritis as well as rheumatoid arthritis.

 

Diabetes

Diabetes is associated with abnormalities in essential fatty acid metabolism.

One of these abnormalities is an impairment in the conversion of LA to GLA. By

supplementing with GLA in the form of evening primrose oil, we can bypass this

impairment and give the body the GLA it needs. Individuals with diabetic related

neuropathies have been studied using GLA. Significant favorable changes have

been observed in muscle strength, hot and cold thresholds, sensation, and

reflexes.15

 

Heart Disease

High cholesterol: Although fish oils and flax oil have received considerable

attention for their role in reducing heart disease due to their effects on blood

lipids and blood pressure, we shouldn¹t forget about the role of other essential

fatty acids. For example, supplementing with 3 grams of GLA daily for four

months has been shown to decrease triglyceride levels by 48 percent, increase

HDL ( " good " cholesterol) by 22 percent, and significantly reduce total

cholesterol and LDL ( " bad " cholesterol).16 We should always include evening

primrose oil supplementation in our heart disease treatment and prevention plans

in addition to other EFA oils.

 

High blood pressure: High blood pressure (a reading above 140/90) is another

risk factor for heart disease. More than 60 double-blind studies have

demonstrated that either fish oil supplements or flaxseed oil are effective in

lowering blood pressure. Again, we would be wise not to forget about the

potential of evening primrose oil in this regard. In a study combining evening

primrose oil and fish oil supplementation, blood pressure was significantly

lowered when compared to evening primrose oil plus sunflower and evening

primrose oil plus flax oil.17

 

Osteoporosis

It appears evident from the published research that we must expand our use of

EFAs to maximize calcium metabolism and preserve bone health. There is a growing

body of evidence and research to warrant advice about EFAs and calcium

metabolism, bone health and the prevention of osteoporosis. EFAs have been shown

to increase calcium absorption from the gut (in part by enhancing the effects of

vitamin D), reduce urinary excretion of calcium, increase calcium that is

deposited in the bone and improve the strength of bone.18 Adults with

osteoporosis who are given fish oil show an increase in calcium levels and an

increase in urinary calcium clearance.19 GLA in particular has been shown to

reduce the excretion of calcium20, inhibit bone reabsorption and markers of bone

turnover while at the same time increasing the levels of calcium content in the

bone.21

 

Ulcerative Colitis

Evening primrose oil has been studied for individuals with ulcerative colitis.

Although evening primrose oil did not reduce rectal bleeding or stool frequency,

it did significantly improve the stool consistency.22 Evening primrose oil and

other EFA supplements may prove to have a long term role in managing the

symptoms of ulcerative colitis as well as the underlying chronic inflammatory

condition. We look forward to more research in this area.

 

Other Effects

Brain function: A study of psychiatric patients with tardive dyskinesia

(abnormal involuntary movements) received evening primrose oil capsules over

four months. Although evening primrose oil supplementation did not improve the

abnormal movements, there was significant improvement in mental state,

schizophrenic symptoms and memory. In a second phase, zinc, niacin and vitamins

C and B6 were added to evening primrose oil. The combination of supplements

yielded marked and significant improvements in memory, schizophrenic symptoms

and abnormal movement.23, 24, 25

 

Alcoholism: In a clinical trial of alcoholics withdrawing from alcohol, evening

primrose oil significantly reduced the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and

improved liver function as well. In individuals who did not relapse, subjects

reported improved memory and visual motor coordination while taking evening

primrose oil supplementation.26

 

Kidney transplants: In a clinical trial of 89 kidney transplant patients who

received either evening primrose oil or placebo along with their standard

immunosuppressive medication, graft survival was significantly better in the

evening primrose oil group compared to placebo within the first 3-4 months.27

 

Safety and Side Effects

Minor side effects that may occur with evening primrose oil supplementation

include nausea, upset stomach and loose bowel movements.

 

These side effects may be minimized by taking supplements with food or milk,

taking the daily dose in divided portions and increasing the dose slowly.

 

No problems have been associated with pregnancy or breast feeding while

supplementing with evening primrose oil.

 

As with any nutritional supplement, you are advised to consult with your health

care practitioner before beginning a supplementation program.

 

References:

 

Jakubowica D. The significance of prostaglandins in the pre- menstrual syndrome.

In: Taylor R, ed. Premenstrual syndrome. London: Medical New-Tribune, 1983,

p.16.

Puolakka J, et al. Biochemical and clinical effects of treating the premenstrual

syndrome with prostaglandin synthesis pre- cursors. Journal of Reproductive

Medicine, 1985;30(3):149- 153.

Ocerman P, et al. Evening primrose oil as a treatment of the premenstrual

syndrome. Recent Advancements in Clinical Nutrition,1986;2:404-405.

Casper R, A double blind trial of evening primrose oil in pre- menstrual

syndrome. 2nd International Symposium on PMS, Kiawah Island, Sept. 1987.

Pye J, et al. Clinical experience of drug treatment for mastal- gia. Lancet,

1985;2:373-377.

Pashby N, et al. A clinical trial of evening primrose oil in mastalgia. British

Journal of Surgery, 1981;68:801-824.

Chenoy R, Hussain S, Tayob Y, O'Brien PM, Moss MY, Morse PF. Effect of oral

gamolenic acid from evening primrose oil on menopausal flushing. British Medical

Journal, 1994 Feb 19; 308(6927):501-503.

D¹Almeida A, Carter J, Anatol A, Prost C. Women and Health,

1992;19(2/3):117-131.

Morse P, Horrobin D, Manku M. Meta-analysis of placebo- controlled studies of

the efficacy of Evening primrose oil (Epogam in the treatment of atopic eczema.

Relationship between plasma essential fatty acid changes and clinical response.

British Journal of Dermatology, 1989; 121:75-90.

Yasumoto R, Fujita H, Yamamoto T. The effectiveness, safety and usefulness of

borage oil on atopic dermatitis. Acta Dermatologica, 1996;92(2):249-251.

Pullman-Mooar S, Laposata M, Lem D, et al. Alteration of the cellular fatty acid

profile and the production of eicosanoids in human monocytes by gamma-linolenic

acid. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 1990;33(10):1526-1533.

Andreassi M, Forleo P, DiLorio A, et al. Efficacy of gamma- linolenic acid in

the treatment of patients with atopic der- matitis. Journal of International

Medical Research, 1997; 25:266-274.

Zurier R, Rosetti R, Jacobson E, et al. Gamma linolenic acid treatment of

Rheumatoid Arthritis. A randomized placebo- controlled trial. Arthritis

Rheumatology, 1996; 39(11):1808- 1817.

Leventhal L, Boyce E, Zurier R. Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis with

gamma-linolenic acid. Annals of Internal Medicine, 1993;119:867-873.

Keen H, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma linolenic acid.

Diabetes Care, 1993;16:8-13.

Guivernau M, Meza N, Barja P, et al. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential

Fatty Acids, 1994;51(5):311-316.

Venter C, Joubert P, Booyens J. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty

Acids, 1988;33(1):49-51.

Horrobin K. Calcium metabolism, osteoporosis and essential fatty acids: a

review. Progress in Lipid Research, 1997;36(2- 3):131-151

Papendorp D, Coetzer H, Kruger M. Biochemical profile of osteoporotic patients

on essential fatty acid supplementation. Nutrition Research, 1995;15(3):325-334.

Tulloch I, Smellie W, Buck A. Evening primrose oil reduces uri- nary calcium

excretion in both normal and hypercalciuric rats. Urological Research,

1994;22:227-230.

Claasen N, Potgieter M, Seppa M, et al. Combination of evening primrose oil and

fish oil influence bone resorption and bone calcium content. Bone,

1995;16(Suppl):385S-392S.

Greenfield S, Green A, Teare J, et al. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics,

1993;7(2):159-166.

Vaddadi K. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids,

1992;46(1):67-70.

Vaddadi K, Courtney P, Gilleard C, et al. Psychiatry Research,

1989;27(3):313-323.

Vaddadi K. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids,

1996;55(102):89-94.

Horrobin D. Review of Contemporary Pharmacotherapy, 1990;1:1-45.

McHugh M, Wilkinson R, Elliott R, et al. Transplantation, 1977;24(4):263-267.

 

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