Human Experiments: A Chronology of Human Research by Vera Hassner Sharav

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> SSRI-Research

> Sat, 28 Aug 2004 22:21:27 -0400

> [sSRI-Research] Human Experiments: A

> Chronology of Human Research by Vera Hassner Sharav

>

> Human Experiments: A Chronology of Human Research

> by Vera Hassner Sharav

> www.ahrp.org

>

> 6th century B.C.: Meat and vegetable experiment on

> young Jewish prisoners in Book of Daniel.

>

> 5th century B.C: " Primum non nocere " ( " First do no

> harm " ), medical ethics standard attributed to

> Hippocrates. This Oath became obligatory for

> physicians prior to practicing medicine in the 4th

> century AD

>

> 1st century B.C. Cleopatra devised an experiment to

> test the accuracy of the theory that it takes 40

> days to fashion a male fetus fully and 80 days to

> fashion a female fetus. When her handmaids were

> sentenced to death under government order, Cleopatra

> had them impregnated and subjected them to

> subsequent operations to open their wombs at

> specific times of gestation.

> [http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/NaziMedExNotes.html#1]

>

>

> 12th century: Rabbi and physician Maimonides'

> Prayer: " May I never see in the patient anything but

> a fellow creature in pain. "

>

> 1796 Edward Jenner injects healthy eight-year-old

> James Phillips first with cowpox then three months

> later with smallpox and is hailed as discoverer of

> smallpox vaccine.

>

> 1845-1849: J. Marion Sims, " the father of

> gynecology " performed multiple experimental

> surgeries on enslaved African women without the

> benefit of anesthesia. After suffering unimaginable

> pain, many lost their lives to infection. One woman

> was made to endure 34 experimental operations for a

> prolapsed uterus.

> http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/jm_sims.htm

>

> 1865: French physiologist Claude Bernard publishes

> " Introduction to the Study of Human

> Experimentation, " advising: " Never perform an

> experiment which might be harmful to the patient

> even though highly advantageous to science or the

> health of others. "

>

> 1896: Dr. Arthur Wentworth performed spinal taps on

> 29 children at Children's Hospital, Boston, to

> determine if the procedure was harmful. Dr. John

> Roberts of Philadelphia, noting the non-therapeutic

> indication, labeled Wentworth's procedures " human

> vivisection. "

>

> 1897: Italian bacteriologist Sanarelli injects five

> subjects with bacillus searching for a causative

> agent for yellow fever.

>

> 1900: Walter Reed injects 22 Spanish immigrant

> workers in Cuba with the agent for yellow fever

> paying them $100 if they survive and $200 if they

> contract the disease.

>

> 1900: Berlin Code of Ethics. Royal Prussian Minister

> of Religion, Education, and Medical Affairs

> guaranteed that: " all medical interventions for

> other than diagnostic, healing, and immunization

> purposes, regardless of other legal or moral

> authorization are excluded under all circumstances

> if (1) the human subject is a minor or not competent

> due to other reasons; (2) the human subject has not

> given his unambiguous consent; (3) the consent is

> not preceded by a proper explanation of the possible

> negative consequences of the intervention. "

>

http://www.geocities.com/artnscience/00berlincode.pdf

>

>

> 1906: Dr. Richard Strong, a professor of tropical

> medicine at Harvard, experiments with cholera on

> prisoners in the Philippines killing thirteen.

>

> 1913: Pennsylvania House of Representatives recorded

> that 146 children had been inoculated with syphilis,

> " through the courtesy of the various hospitals " and

> that 15 children in St. Vincent's House in

> Philadelphia had had their eyes tested with

> tuberculin. Several of these children became

> permanently blind. The experimenters were not

> punished.

>

> 1915: A doctor in Mississippi, working for the U.S.

> Public Health Office produces Pellagra in twelve

> Mississippi inmates in an attempt to discover a cure

> for the disease

>

> 1919-1922: Testicular transplant experiments on five

> hundred prisoners at San Quentin.

>

> 1927: Carrie Buck of Charlottesville is legally

> sterilized against her will at the Virginia Colony

> Home for the Mentally Infirm. Carrie Buck was the

> mentally normal daughter of a mentally retarded

> mother, but under the Virginia law, she was declared

> potentially capable of having a " less than normal

> child. " By the 1930s, seventeen states in the U.S.

> have laws permitting forced sterilization

> The settlement of Poe v. Lynchburg Training School

> and Hospital (same institution, different name) in

> 1981 brought to an end the Virginia law. It is

> estimated that as many as 10,000 perfectly normal

> women were forcibly sterilized for " legal " reasons

> including alcoholism, prostitution, and criminal

> behavior in general.

>

> 1931: Lubeck, Germany, 75 children die in from

> pediatrician's experiment with tuberculosis vaccine.

>

>

> 1931: Germany adopts " Regulation on New Therapy and

> Experimentation " requiring all human experiments to

> be preceded by animal experiments. This law remained

> in effect during the Nazi regime.

>

> 1931: Dr. Cornelius Rhoads, a pathologist, conducted

> a cancer experiment in Puerto Rico under the

> auspices of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical

> Investigations. Dr. Rhoads has been accused of

> purposely infecting his Puerto Rican subjects with

> cancer cells. Thirteen of the subjects died. A

> Puerto Rican physician uncovered the experiment an

> investigation covered-up the facts. Despite Rhoads'

> hand written statements that the Puerto Rican

> population should be eradicated, Rhoads went on to

> establish U.S. Army Biological Warfare facilities in

> Maryland, Utah, and Panama, and was later named to

> the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Rhoads was also

> responsible for the radiation experiments on

> prisoners, hospital patients, and soldiers. The

> American Association for Cancer Research honored him

> by naming its exemplary scientist award the

> Cornelius Rhoads Award.

>

> 1932-1972: U.S. Public Health Service study in

> Tuskegee, Alabama of more than 400 black

> sharecroppers observed for the natural course of

> untreated syphilis.

>

> 1932: Japanese troops invade Manchuria. Dr. Shiro

> Ishii, a prominent physician and army officer begins

> preliminary germ warfare experiments.

>

> 1936: Japan's Wartime Human Biowarfare

> Experimentation Program.

>

> 1938: Japan establishes Unit 731 in Pingfan, 25 km.

> from Harbin. Unit 731, a biological-warfare unit

> disguised as a water-purification unit, is formed

> outside the city of Harbin.

>

> 1939: Third Reich orders births of all twins be

> registered with Public Health Offices for purpose of

> genetic research.

>

> 1939: Twenty-two children living at the Iowa

> Soldiers' Orphans' Home in Davenport were the

> subjects of the " monster " experiment that used

> psychological pressure to induce children who spoke

> normally to stutter. It was designed by one of the

> nation's most prominent speech pathologists, Dr.

> Wendell Johnson, to test his theory on the cause of

> stuttering.

>

> 1940: Poisonous gas experiments at Unit 731. One

> experiment conducted September 7-10, 1940, on 16

> Chinese prisoners who were exposed to mustard gas in

> a simulated battle situation.

>

> 1940-1941: Unit 731 used aircraft to spread cotton

> and rice husks contaminated with the black plague at

> Changde and Ningbo, in central China. About 100

> people died from the black plague in Ningbo as a

> result.

> 1940's: In a crash program to develop new drugs to

> fight Malaria during World War II, doctors in the

> Chicago area infected nearly 400 prisoners with the

> disease. Although the Chicago inmates were given

> general information that they were helping with the

> war effort, they were not informed about the nature

> of the experiment. Nazi doctors on trial at

> Nuremberg cited the Chicago studies as precedents to

> defend their own research aimed at aiding the German

> war effort.

>

> 1941: Sterilization experiments at Auschwitz.

>

> 1941-1945: Typhus experiments at Buchenwald and

> Natzweiler concentration camps.

>

> 1941: Dr. William c. Black inoculated a twelve month

> old baby with herpes. He was criticized by Francis

> Payton Rous, editor of the Journal of Experimental

> Medicine, who called it " an abuse of power, an

> infringement of the rights of an individual, and not

> excusable because the illness which followed had

> implications for science. " Dr. Rous rejected

> outright the fact that the child had been " offered

> as a volunteer. "

>

> 1942 -1945: Unit 731. Ishii begins " field tests " of

> germ warfare and vivisection experiments on

> thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians. Chinese

> people who rebelled against the Japanese occupation

> were arrested and sent to Pingfan where they became

> human guinea pigs; there is evidence that some

> Russian prisoners were also victims of medical

> atrocities.

>

> " I cut him open from the chest to the stomach and he

> screamed terribly and his face was all twisted in

> agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was

> screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped.

> This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but

> it really left an impression on me because it was my

> first time. " NYT

>

> These prisoners were called 'maruta' (literally

> 'logs') by the Japanese. After succumbing to induced

> diseases - including bubonic plague, cholera,

> anthrax - the prisoners were usually dissected while

> still alive, their bodies then cremated within the

> compound. Tens of thousands died. The atrocities

> were committed by some of Japan's most distinguished

> doctors recruited by Dr. Ishii.

>

> 1942: High altitude or low pressure experiments at

> Dachau concentration camp.

>

> 1942: Harvard biochemist Edward Cohn injects

> sixty-four Massachusetts prisoners with beef blood

> in U.S. Navy-sponsored experiment.

>

> 1942: Japanese sprayed cholera, typhoid, plague, and

> dysentery pathogens in the Jinhua area of Zhejian

> province (China). A large number of Japanese

> soldiers also fell victim to the sprayed diseases.

>

> 1942-1943: Bone regeneration and transplantation

> experiments on female prisoners at Ravensbrueck

> concentration camp.

>

> 1942-1943: Freezing experiments at Dachau

> concentration camp.

>

> 1943 Refrigeration experiment conducted on sixteen

> mentally disabled patients who were placed in

> refrigerated cabinets at 30 degree Farenheit, for

> 120 hours, at University of Cincinnati Hospital.,

> " to study the effect of frigid temperature on mental

> disorders. "

>

> 1942-1943: Coagulation experiments on Catholic

> priests at Dachau concentration camp.

>

> 1942-1944: U.S. Chemical Warfare Service conducts

> mustard gas experiments on thousands of servicemen.

>

> 1942-1945: Malaria experiments at Dachau

> concentration camp on more than twelve hundred

> prisoners.

>

> 1943: Epidemic jaundice experiments at Natzweiler

> concentration camp.

>

> 1943-1944: Phosphorus burn experiments at Buchenwald

> concentration camp.

>

> 1944: Manhattan Project injection of 4.7 micrograms

> of plutonium into soldiers at Oak Ridge.

>

> 1944: Seawater experiment on sixty Gypsies who were

> given only saltwater to drink at Dachau

> concentration camp.

>

> 1944-1946: University of Chicago Medical School

> professor Dr. Alf Alving conducts malaria

> experiments on more than 400 Illinois prisoners.

>

> 1945: Manhattan Project injection of plutonium into

> three patients at Billings Hospital at University of

> Chicago.

>

> 1945: Malaria experiment on 800 prisoners in

> Atlanta.

>

> 1946: Opening of Nuremberg Doctors Trial by U.S.

> Military Tribunal.

>

> 1945: Japanese troops blow up the headquarters of

> Unit 731 in final days of Pacific war. Ishii orders

> 150 remaining ''logs'' (i.e., human beings) killed

> to cover up their experimentation. Gen. Douglas

> MacArthur is named commander of the Allied powers in

> Japan.

>

> 1946: U.S. secret deal with Ishii and Unit 731

> leaders cover up of germ warfare data based on human

> experimentation in exchange for immunity from

> war-crimes prosecution.

>

> 1946-1953: Atomic Energy Commission sponsored study

> conducted at the Fernald school in Massachusetts.

> Residents were fed Quaker Oats breakfast cereal

> containing radioactive tracers.

>

> 1946: Patients in VA hospitals are used as guinea

> pigs for medical experiments. In order to allay

> suspicions, the order is given to change the word

> " experiments " to " investigations " or " observations "

> whenever reporting a medical study performed in one

> of the nation's veteran's hospitals.

>

> 1947: Colonel E.E. Kirkpatrick of the U.S. Atomic

> Energy Comission issues a secret document (Document

> 07075001, January 8, 1947) stating that the agency

> will begin administering intravenous doses of

> radioactive substances to human subjects.

>

> 1947: The CIA begins its study of LSD as a potential

> weapon for use by American intelligence. Human

> subjects (both civilian and military) are used with

> and without their knowledge.

>

> 1947: Judgment at Nuremberg Doctors Trial sets forth

> " Permissible Medical Experiments " - i.e., the

> Nuremberg Code, which begins: " The voluntary consent

> of the human subject is absolutely essential. "

>

> 1949: Intentional release of radiodine 131 and xenon

> 133 over Hanford Washington in Atomic Energy

> Commission field study called " Green Run. "

>

> 1949: Soviet Union's war crimes trial of Dr. Ishii's

> associates.

>

> 1949-1953: Atomic Energy Commission studies of

> mentally disabled school children fed radioactive

> isotopes at Fernald and Wrentham schools.

>

> 1940s-1950s: " psychic driving " and " mental

> departterning " experiments conducted by Dr. Ewen

> Cameron, depriving patients of sleep, using massive

> ECT combined with psychoactive drugs such as, LSD.

> After his " treatments " patients were unable to

> function. In the 1950's Dr.Cameron's experiments

> were sponsored by the CIA.

>

> 1950: Dr. Joseph Stokes of the University of

> Pennsylvania infects 200 women prisoners with viral

> hepatitis.

>

> 1950: U.S. Army secretly used a Navy ship outside

> the Golden Gate to spray supposedly harmless

> bacteria over San Francisco and its outskirts.

> Eleven people were sickened by the germs, and one of

> them died.

>

> 1951-1960: University of Pennsylvania under contract

> with U.S. Army conducts psychopharmacological

> experiments on hundreds of Pennsylvania prisoners.

>

> 1952-1974: University of Pennsylvania dermatologist

> Dr. Albert Kligman conducts skin product experiments

> by the hundreds at Holmesburg Prison; " All I saw

> before me, " he has said about his first visit to the

> prison, " were acres of skin. "

>

> 1952: Henry Blauer injected with a fatal dose of

> mescaline at New York State Psychiatric Institute of

> Columbia University. U.S. Department of Defense, the

> sponsor, conspired to conceal evidence for 23 years.

> I

> 1953 Newborn Daniel Burton rendered blind at

> Brooklyn Doctor's Hospital due to high oxygen study

> on RLF.

> 1953-1957: Oak Ridge-sponsored injection of uranium

> into eleven patients at Massachusetts General

> Hospital in Boston.

>

> 1953-1960: CIA brainwashing experiments with LSD at

> eighty institutions on hundreds of subjects in a

> project code named " MK-ULTRA. "

>

> 1953-1970: U.S. Army experiments with LSD on

> soldiers at Fort Detrick, Md.

>

> 1954-1974: U.S. Army study of 2,300 Seventh-Day

> Adventist soldiers in 157 experiments code named

> " Operation Whitecoat. "

>

> 1950s -1972: Mentally disabled children at

> Willowbrook School (NY) were deliberately infected

> with hepatitis in an attempt to find a vaccine.

> Participation in the study was a condition for

> admission to institution.

>

> 1956: Dr. Albert Sabin tests experimental polio

> vaccine on 133 prisoners in Ohio.

>

> 1958-1962: Spread of radioactive materials over

> Inupiat land in Point Hope, Alaska in Atomic Energy

> Commission field study code named " Project Chariot. "

>

>

> 1962: Thalidomide withdrawn from the market after

> thousands of birth deformities blamed in part on

> misleading results of animal studies; the FDA

> thereafter requires three phases of human clinical

> trials before a drug can be approved for the market.

>

>

> 1962 to 1966, a total of 33 pharmaceutical companies

> tested 153 experimental drugs at Holmesburg prison

> (PA) alone.

>

> 1962-1980 Pharmaceutical companies conduct phase I

> safety testing of drugs almost exclusively on

> prisoners for small cash payments.

>

> 1962: Injection of live cancer cells into 22 elderly

> patients at Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital in

> Brooklyn.

> Administration covered up, NYS licensing board

> placed the principal investigator on probation for

> one year. Two years later, American Cancer Society

> elected him Vice President.

>

> 1962: Stanley Milgram conducts obedience research at

> Yale University.

>

> 1963: NIH supported researcher transplants

> chimpanzee kidney into human in failed experiment.

> 1963-1973: Dr. Carl Heller, a leading

> endocrinologist, conducts testicular irradiation

> experiments on prisoners in Oregon and Washington

> giving them $5 a month and $100 when they receive a

> vasectomy at the end of the trial.

 

> 1964: World Medical Association

> adopts Helsinki Declaration, asserting " The

> interests of science and society should never take

> precedence over the well being of the subject. "

> 1965-1966: University of

> Pennsylvania under contract with Dow Chemical

> conducts dioxin experiments on prisoners at

> Holmesburg.

> 1966: Henry Beecher's article

> " Ethics and Clinical Research " in New England

> Journal of Medicine.

>

> 1966: U.S. Army introduces bacillus

> globigii into New York subway tunnels in field

> study.

>

> 1966: NIH Office for Protection of

> Research Subjects ( " OPRR " ) created and issues

> Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects

> calling for establishment of independent review

> bodies later known as Institutional Review Boards.

>

> 1967: British physician M.H.

> Pappworth publishes " Human Guinea Pigs, " advising

> " No doctor has the right to choose martyrs for

> science or for the general good. "

>

> 1969: Judge Sam Steinfield's

> eloquent dissent in Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d

> 145, the first judicial suggestion that the

> Nuremberg Code should influence American

> jurisprudence.

>

> 1969. Milledgeville Georgia,

> investigational drugs tested on mentally disabled

> children. No institutional approval.

>

> 1969: San Antonio Contraceptive

> Study conducted on 70 poor Mexican-American women.

> Half received oral contraceptives the other placebo.

> No informed consent.

>

> 1973 Ad Hoc Advisory Panel issues

> Final Report of Tuskegee Syphilis Study, concluding

> " Society can no longer afford to leave the balancing

> of individual rights against scientific progress to

> the scientific community. "

> 1974: National Research Act

> establishes National Commission for the Protection

> of Human subjects and requires Public Health Service

> to promulgate regulations for the protection of

> human subjects.

> 1975: The Department of Health,

> Education and Welfare (DHEW) raised NIH's 1966

> Policies for the Protection of Human subjects to

> regulatory status. Title 45 of the Code of Federal

> Regulations, known as " The Common Rule, " requires

> the appointment and utilization of institutional

> review boards (IRBs).

>

> 1976: National Urban League holds National

> Conference on Human Experimentation, announcing " We

> don't want to kill science but we don't want science

> to kill, mangle and abuse us. "

>

> 1978: Experimental Hepatitis B vaccine trials,

> conducted by the CDC, begin in New York, Los Angeles

> and San Francisco. Ads for research subjects

> specifically ask for promiscuous homosexual men.

>

> 1979: National Commission issues Belmont Report

> setting forth three basic ethical principles:

> respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.

>

> 1980: The FDA promulgates 21 CFR

> 50.44 prohibiting use of prisoners as subjects in

> clinical trials shifting phase I testing by

> pharmaceutical companies to non-prison population.

>

> 1981: Leonard Whitlock suffers

> permanent brain damage after deep diving experiment

> at Duke University.

>

> 1986: Congressional subcommittee holds one-day

> hearing in Washington, called by Rep. Pat Williams

> of Montana, aimed at determining whether U.S.

> prisoners of war in Manchuria were victims of

> germ-warfare experimentation. Hearing is

> inconclusive.

>

> 1981-1996: Protocol 126 at Fred Hutchinson Cancer

> Center in Seattle.

>

> 1987: Supreme Court decision in

> United States v. Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, holding

> soldier given LSD without his consent could not sue

> U.S. Army for damages.

>

> 1987: " L-dopa challenge and relapse "

> experiment conducted on 28 U.S. veterans who were

> subjected to psychotic relapse for study purposes at

> the Bronx VA.

> 1990: The FDA grants Department of

> Defense waiver of Nuremberg Code for use of

> unapproved drugs and vaccines in Desert Shield.

> 1991: World Health Organization

> announces CIOMS Guidelines which set forth four

> ethical principles: respect for persons,

> beneficence, nonmaleficence and justice.

> 1991: Tony LaMadrid commits suicide

> after participating in study on relapse of

> schizophrenics withdrawn from medication at UCLA.

> 1993: Kathryn Hamilton dies 44 days

> after participating in breast cancer experiment at

> Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle.

>

> 1994. The Albuquerque Tribune

> publicizes 1940s experiments involving plutonium

> injection of human research subjects and secret

> radiation experiments. Indigent patients and

> mentally retarded children were deceived about the

> nature of their treatment.

>

> 1994. President Clinton appoints the

> Advisory Commission on Human Radiation Experiments

> (ACHRE) The ACHRE Report

> http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/index.html

>

> 1995. U.S. Department of Energy

> (DOE) published Human Radiation Experiments, listing

> 150 plus an additional 275 radiation experiments

> conducted by DOE and the Atomic Energy Commission,

> during the 1940s-1970s.

>

http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/experiments/0491doca.html#0491_List

>

>

> 1995: 19-year-old University of

> Rochester student Nicole Wan dies after being paid

> $150 to participate in MIT-sponsored experiment to

> test airborne pollutant chemicals.

>

> 1995. President Clinton appoints the

> National Bioethics Advisory Commission.

>

> 1995: NYS Supreme Court rules (TD v

> NYS Office of Mental Health) against the state's

> policy of conducting nontherapeutic experiments on

> mentally incapacitated persons-including

> children-without informed consent. Justice Edward

> Greenfield ruled that parents have no authority to

> volunteer their children:

> " Parents may be free to make martyrs of themselves,

> but it does not follow that they may make martyrs of

> their children. "

>

> 1995: Thirty-four healthy, previously non-aggressive

> New York City minority children, boys aged 6 to 11

> years old, were exposed to fenfluramine in a

> nontherapeutic experiment at the New York State

> Psychiatric Institute. The children were exposed to

> this neurotoxic drug to record their neurochemical

> response in an effort to prove a speculative theory

> linking aggression to a biological marker.

>

> 1996. Cleveland Plain Dealer

> investigative report series, 'Drug Trials: Do People

> Know the Truth About Experiments,' December 15 to

> 18, 1996. The Plain-Dealer found: of the " 4,154 FDA

> inspections of researchers testing new drugs on

> people [since 1977] . . . more than half the

> researchers were cited by FDA inspectors for failing

> to clearly disclose the experimental nature of their

> work. "

>

> 1996: Yale University researchers

> publish findings of experiment that subjected 18

> stable schizophrenia patients to psychotic relapse

> in an amphetamine provocation experiment at West

> Haven VA.

>

> 1997. President Clinton issues a formal apology to

> the subjects of the Tuskegee syphilis experiments.

> NBAC continues investigation into genetics, consent,

> privacy, and research on persons with mental

> disorders.

>

> 1997. Researchers at the University of Cincinnati

> publish findings of experiment attempting to create

> a " psychosis model " on human beings at the

> Cincinnati VA. Sixteen patients, experiencing a

> first episode schizophrenia, were subjected to

> repeated provocation with amphetamine. The stated

> purpose was to produce " behavioral sensitization.

> This process serves as a model for the development

> of psychosis, but has been little studied in humans.

> Symptoms, such as severity of psychosis and

> eye-blink rates, were measured hourly for 5 hours. "

>

> 1997. U.S. government sponsored placebo-controlled

> experiment withholds treatment from HIV infected,

> pregnant African women. NY Times, Sept. 18.

>

> 1997. Victims of unethical research at major U.S.

> medical centers - including the NIMH - testify

> before the National Bioethics Advisory Commission,

> Sept. 18.

>

> 1997. FDA Modernization Act gives pharmaceutical

> companies a huge financial incentive-a 6 month

> patent exclusivity extension-if they conduct drug

> tests on children. The incentive can yield $900

> million.

>

> 1998. National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC)

> Report. Research Involving Subjects with Mental

> Disorders That May Affect Decisionmaking Capacity.

> November 12, 1998

>

http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/nbac/capacity/TOC.htm

>

>

> 1998: The Japanese government has

> never formally apologized for Unit 731's activities,

> and did not even admit to its existence until August

> 1998, when the Supreme Court ruled that the

> existence of the unit was accepted in academic

> circles.

>

> 1998. Complaint filed with OPRR

> about experiments that exposed non-violent children

> in New York City to fenfluramine to find a

> predisposition to violence.

>

> 1998: Boston Globe (four part)

> series, " Doing Harm: Research on the Mentally Ill "

> shed light on the mistreatment and exploitation of

> schizophrenia patients who have been subjected to

> relapse producing procedures in unethical

> experiments.

>

> 1999: Nine month-old Gage Stevens

> dies at Children's Hospital in Pittsburgh during

> participation in Propulsid clinical trial for infant

> acid reflux.

>

> 1999: 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger

> dies after being injected with 37 trillion particles

> of adenovirus in gene therapy experiment at

> University of Pennsylvania.

>

> 1999: Director of National Institute

> of Mental Health suspends 29 clinical trials that

> failed to meet either ethical or scientific

> standards.

>

> 2000: University of Oklahoma

> melanoma trial halted for failure to follow

> government regulations and protocol.

>

> 2000: OPRR becomes Office of Human

> Research Protection ( " OHRP " ) and made part of the

> Department of Health and Human Services.

> 2000: President Clinton implement the Energy

> Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Act of

> 2000, which authorized compensation for thousands of

> Department of Energy workers who sacrificed their

> health in building the nation's nuclear defenses.

>

> 2000: The Washington Post (6 part) series, " Body

> Hunters " exposes unethical exploitation in

> experiments conducted by U.S. investigators in

> underdeveloped countries. Part 4 dealt with U.S.

> government funded, genetic experiments conducted by

> Harvard University in rural China.

>

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26797-2000Dec19.html

>

>

> 2001: A biotech company in Pennsylvania asks the FDA

> for permission to conduct placebo trials on infants

> in Latin America born with serious lung disease

> though such tests would be illegal in U.S.

>

> 2001: Ellen Roche, a healthy 27-year old volunteer,

> dies in challenge study at Johns Hopkins University

> in Baltimore, Maryland.

>

> 2001: April 4, Elaine Holden-Able, a healthy retired

> nurse, consumed a glass of orange juice that had

> been mixed with a dietary supplement for the sake of

> medical research. This Case Western University

> Alzheimer's experiment, financed by the tobacco

> industry, wound up killing her in what was called a

> ''tragic human error.'' Federal Office of Human

> Research Protections did not interview hospital

> staff, mostly accepted hospital's internal report,

> imposed no penalty, and closed the case and did not

> mention the death in its letter of determination.

> http://ohrp.osophs.dhhs.gov/detrm_letrs/nov01f.pdf

>

> 2001: Maryland Court of Appeals renders a landmark

> decision affirming " best interest of the individual

> child " as a standard for medical research involving

> children. The Court unequivocally prohibited

> nontherapeutic experimentation on children. (Higgins

> and Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute).The case

> involved exposure of babies and small children to

> lead poisoning in EPA funded experiment.

>

(http://www.courts.state.md.us/opinions/coa/2001/128a00.pdf)

>

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