Digging Up Our Nutritional Past

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http://www.johnberardi.com/articles/nutrition/digging.htm

Digging Up Our Nutritional Past

By John K. Williams, PhD

First published at www.johnberardi.com, Apr 23 2004.

 

 

Last week as I was discussing the benefits of a Berardi-esque nutrition

plan in one of my lectures, it struck me how strange it might seem to some

that I would incorporate research from a performance nutritionist into a

course about archaeology. Granted, I'm a big fan of JB's research for my

own health/performance goals, but many of the same issues arose as I was

preparing a lecture for nutrition during the Paleolithic and Neolithic. The

lecture primarily discussed how archaeologists recover dietary information,

what this tells us about subsistence, and how there was a major shift in

diet about 10,000 years ago, when people switched from a diet of wild

animals and plants to farmed ones - a.k.a. the " Neolithic Revolution " . But

I couldn't resist using some of this archaeological evidence to explain

some of our modern health problems, and how this information can be used to

help us achieve various goals.

 

Unfortunately, paleonutrition studies are often lumped together with trendy

" paleo-diets " , which claim for example that Neanderthals looked like

bodybuilders because they ate a secret diet that is now available to anyone

who buys their book. There was no single " Paleo-Diet " . People ate whatever

they could get their hands on, because food surplus rarely existed before

agriculture, and what they ate depended upon what was available to them in

one particular locality. Besides, the thin, gracile stature of most of our

Paleolithic ancestors may not be the ideal goal for everyone, particularly

those looking to gain large amounts of muscle. There are of course

exceptions, such as Neanderthals, who seem to have been genetically

predisposed to physiques that are today only attainable with steroids (1,

2). But the fact remains that large amounts of lean body mass with

extremely low body fat would simply not have been beneficial, or possible,

during the majority of our antiquity. The body stores fat for a good

reason, and during the majority of our time on this planet, it would have

been advantageous for the body to store as much fat as possible for energy

reserves during times of scarcity. Ironically, this adaptation that has

saved us for millions of years is the same process that is killing us today

with obesity and other health problems. There is a huge discrepancy between

the rate of change in our technological advancements that have allowed many

of us today to enjoy an enormous food surplus, versus our genome, which is

still very much adapted to a Stone Age existence (3, 4).

 

Studying nutrition in the archaeological record is not only interesting

(some of my students might disagree), but it also provides us with some

very useful information. We can use this information to manipulate

different nutritional variables to meet our goals, whether they involve

athletic gains, hypertrophy, strength, or overall health. Thus we enter the

realm of John Berardi, whose nutritional advice in articles such as The 7

Habits of Highly Effective Nutritional Programs, is supported not only in

his clients today, but also in the prehistoric record.

 

Evidence from the Archaeological Record

 

Protein is Essential

 

I know I'm preaching to the choir here, but just to provide a background,

humans have evolved on a diet rich in protein since our humble beginnings

in East Africa millions of years ago. Various lines of evidence suggest

that the earliest hominids to share our own genus, Homo habilis, made a

living largely by scavenging what was left behind by the carnivores in the

savannah some 2.5 million years ago (5). That's right, " Man the Hunter "

seems to have come later; our earliest relatives seem to have been sneaky

little scavengers. Basically, they used stone tools to quickly

disarticulate the remains of already-eaten prey, and then ran like hell

from the lions and hyenas. Once they were in a safe place, they could

scrape off the remaining meat, and most importantly, crack into the marrow

of the long bones with hammer stones. Even the powerful jaws of hyenas

cannot crack into some of the larger bones, leaving the marrow intact in

scavenged prey. The marrow from the leg bones of a single large animal

provide about 1,500 calories of protein and fat (6).

 

Later hominids became more effective at exploiting protein, and eventually

became sophisticated hunters. In fact, evidence from Neanderthal skeletons

from Vindija Cave, Croatia, suggests these hominids were behaving as

top-level carnivores. A particular nitrogen isotope - 15N - increases as it

passes up the food chain from plants to animals. Therefore, large amounts

of 15N (found in bone collagen) reflects meat consumption. 15N content in

Neanderthal skeletons at Vindija Cave was the same as carnivores also found

within the cave, such as fox and wolf, and significantly higher than

herbivores, such as Bos/Bison and Cervid. On a side note, the claim that

high protein diets are bad for bone health due to calciuric action is in no

way supported by the robust bone structure of early meat-eating hominids.

 

The current average for protein content in the western diet is 10-15%,

which is far below what many prehistoric people probably ate. There seems

to be growing evidence for a positive effects on blood-lipid levels with

increased protein consumption, including studies showing that isocaloric

(calorie-for-calorie) replacement of carbohydrate with protein lowers total

cholesterol, while increasing the amount of HDL relative to LDL cholesterol

(12).

 

Vegetables and Fruit are Essential

 

Neanderthals in Europe may have been big meat eaters, but our ancestors

were by no means carnivores. Plants were eaten - even by Neanderthals, as

evidenced by the microscopic remains of plants on stone tools (8), and the

abundant remains of herbaceous plants and wild cereals around hearths made

by Neanderthals at Amud Cave in Israel (9). Make no mistake, vegetables and

fruit were eaten in abundance by our ancestors, and we have evolved to reap

the benefits of their nutrients. Vegetable remains are underrepresented in

the archaeological record, because they are more susceptible to decay than,

say, stones, or even bones. But in rare examples of extremely good organic

preservation, it is shocking to witness the quantity and diversity of

vegetable food. For example, a 23,000 year-old fishing camp (Ohalo II) was

recently exposed on the shore of the Sea of Galilee in Israel due to a

drought and receding water levels (13). Water had submerged the site for

most of its existence, preserving the majority of organic remains,

including bones, wood, nuts, and seeds. Protein was definitely not in short

supply, judging from the remains of fish, tortoise, birds, hare, fox,

gazelle, and deer, to name a few. But the seeds of numerous plants, fruits,

and nuts were recovered (14). The occupants ate various edible grasses

(wild barley), and wild forms of almonds, olives, pistachios, and grapes.

This " broad-spectrum " economy (15) is characteristic of our Paleolithic

ancestors.

 

 

Wild plants contain antioxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, and micronutrients

that fill nutritional voids left by our modern diet, and decrease the risk

for chronic diseases (11). In particular, leafy greens seem to provide some

of the best benefits. But any vegetables are good, and variety is the key,

as studies have shown a direct correlation between the variety of fruits

and vegetables eaten, and the benefits seen from the micronutrients (16).

Vegetable consumption today in developed societies is limited to a few

cultivated vegetables, which often lack an adequate supply of

micronutrients. Take for example corn, which is so infused into American

society that it is nearly impossible to find a pre-packaged food in the

aisle of a grocery store that does not have some form of corn. Corn

kernels, meal, and of course high fructose corn syrup - the ubiquitous

sweetener. Besides, corn is no more of a vegetable than wheat or rice: all

are grains domesticated from wild grasses. Take corn out of the equation,

and the fruit and vegetable intake of the average American is truly

depressing. Perhaps the occasional leaf of iceberg lettuce and a slice of

tomato on a burger, or the same mixed into a salad, perhaps with some

shredded carrots.

 

Various studies have shown that the micronutrients in fruits and vegetables

decrease the risk of cancer, and one study in particular (17) demonstrated

that at least 400 grams of fruits and vegetables should be consumed per day

to see these positive benefits. Four hundred grams is just over 14 ounces,

which equates to one bell pepper, two handfuls of mushrooms, an apple, one

salad of mixed greens, a handful of chopped broccoli, and a small bowl of

steamed spinach. Over the course of a day, this amount is easily

attainable, so hopefully this should serve as a reality check to anyone who

thinks this sounds like a lot of greens. For those who justify a lack of

vegetables in their diet by taking a multivitamin: sorry, but supplementing

individual vitamin intake, as opposed to actually eating the fruits and

vegetables, does not provide the same benefits (18). Multivitamin

supplements certainly have their benefits, but they cannot be used as a

replacement for fruits and vegetables in the diet.

 

Carbohydrates - An Issue of Insulin Management

 

Carbohydrates seem to have been demonized over the past few years in the

same way that fat was demonized during the previous two decades. Rather

than going on a witch hunt, most people would benefit from spending five

minutes reading about the relationship between carbohydrates, insulin, and

body composition. For the more advanced readers, enlightening information

about insulin can be found in articles such as The Anabolic Power of

Insulin and Hungry, Hungry Hormones Part 1 and 2 by John Berardi, and

Intolerable: How to Repair Glucose Intolerance Part 1 and 2 by Lonnie Lowery.

 

Clues to issues such as insulin sensitivity exist in the archaeological

record. In short, carbohydrates were eaten by our prehistoric ancestors in

the form of vegetables, fruit, and whole grains. Grains were domesticated

fairly recently by the first farmers in the Fertile Crescent around 10,000

years ago, and shortly thereafter in other hearth areas, such as the Indus

Valley, China, and Central America. For the first 99% of our existence,

humans ate only wild plants and animals. In essence, carbohydrates were a

lot harder to come by, and our bodies have evolved to respond to

carbohydrates by storing glucose in the adipose tissue, stealing it away

from the muscles. The reason for this seemingly unfortunate phenomenon is

outlined in the " thrifty gene " theory, proposed in 1962 by geneticist James

Neel, which states that people whose genes promote metabolism and storage

of fat had an evolutionary advantage, thus allowing carriers to better

survive periodic famines. In our modern times of abundance, however, those

same genes contribute to insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes.

 

If you consider that firstly, we are genetically predisposed to insulin

resistance, and secondly, the advent of milling during the Industrial

Revolution increased the glycemic and insulin responses of grains 2-3 fold

compared with whole grains (19), then it becomes apparent that non-foods

like donuts and Twinkies serve no other purpose than to add to America's

giant, collective gut.

 

This is not to say that simple carbohydrates should be entirely avoided. In

fact, they are the preferred fuel source, together with protein, to quickly

feed hungry muscles during and immediately after a workout for optimal

recovery and gains (20, 21). But for the rest of the day, and on

non-workout days, it's best to get your carbohydrates from slow-absorbing

and vitamin-rich sources like vegetables and fruits. Whole grains and

legumes are also acceptable in moderation, as part of well-balanced meals

including protein and essential fatty acids. Figure 3 displays this method

of insulin management for maximum gains and recovery during the post

workout period, as outlined in the articles such as Solving the

Post-Workout Puzzle.

 

Modern Versus Ancient Fatty Acid Profiles

 

Although prehistoric fat intake may have been similar to the modern western

diet in terms of overall percentage of fat calories to protein and

carbohydrates, the breakdown of saturated fatty acids (SFA),

monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

was dramatically different in the past. In general, the ancient diet was

richer in MUFA and PUFA's, with less SFA's. Further, there are different

types of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA's that are more beneficial than others. Most

notably, the overabundance of omega-6 fatty acids, at the expense of

omega-3 fatty acids, both of which are PUFA's, has been shown to promote a

lipid profile in which LDL cholesterol is elevated and more prone to

oxidation and hence to the development of coronary heart disease.

 

We can link the high omega-6 intake partly to the abundance of corn and

soybean oil used in modern cooking. Corn oil has an omega-6 to omega-3

ratio of 83 to 1. Soybean oil is somewhat better, with a ratio of 7 to 1.

Nevertheless, several sources indicate that humans evolved on a ratio of

about 1 to 1, and in Western diets the ratio averages 16 to 1 (22). A diet

too high in omega-6's, at the expense of omega-3's has been linked to

various diseases including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and inflammatory

and autoimmune diseases. In contrast, a low ratio of omega-6's to

omega-3's, similar to what we ate in the past, has a host of benefits,

including disease prevention.

 

It is not only vegetable oils which are guilty for the poor fatty acid

profile in the Western diet. Feedlot animals such as cattle are fed corn

meal spiked with antibiotics, because cows cannot normally eat corn and

survive. As the adage goes, you are what you eat, and the same high ratio

of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids found in corn is transferred to feedlot

animals who eat corn. Wild and free-range animals who feed on wild grasses

have a much more favorable fatty acid profile, and thus are mush healthier

for human consumption (23). Further, domesticated (feedlot) animals have

much higher proportions of fat in general, and saturated fat in particular,

than wild animals. Wild animals almost always show a seasonal variation in

storage fat, and even the very fattest wild land mammals contain 60-75%

less total fat than the average domesticated animal (24).

 

What are we to do? Wild game like venison, bison, and birds are always a

good option, but if you can't afford these delicacies, then your best

option is to eat only the leanest meat (e.g., sirloin and chicken breasts),

and get your fatty acids from smart choices like cold water fish (mackerel,

salmon, sardines), flax, and olive oil. It is not advisable to entirely

avoid saturated fat, as it is important for desirable hormonal balance, but

neither is it possible to avoid saturated fat, since you will get enough of

it even while eating the leanest of meats and dairy.

 

Fusing Our Past with the Present

 

Is this a treatise suggesting we all revert back to a " caveman " diet? Not

even close. Like I said in the beginning of this article, the diet of

prehistoric man varied considerably, according to when and where that

person lived. We can, however, draw various generalizations from the

remains left behind by our ancestors to prevent various disorders and

diseases, live a healthier life, or even manipulate various nutritional

variables to achieve insane amounts of lean body mass.

 

About the Author

 

John K. Williams is an archaeologist by training but his free time is

occupied with eating well, training hard, and contributing great articles

to johnberardi.com. If you haven't already read John's recipe articles, be

sure to check them out now (A Brief History of Oats, Beyond Oatmeal, Part

1: Protein and Carb Meals, and Beyond Oatmeal, Part 2: Protein and Fat Meals).

 

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