THE BIOLOGICAL INTERFACE WITH AN INTERCONNECTED UNIVERSE

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THE RIGHT TEMPORAL LOBE AND ASSOCIATED LIMBIC LOBE STRUCTURES AS THEBIOLOGICAL INTERFACE WITH AN INTERCONNECTED UNIVERSEhttp://www.melvinmorse.com/e-tlp.htmMelvin Morse M.D.Associate Professor of PediatricsUniversity of Washington4011 Talbot Road S.Renton, Washington 98055ABSTRACT:Deep right temporal lobe and associated limbic lobe structures areclearly linked to human religious experiences of all types, includingconversion experiences and near death experiences. Simply becausereligious experiences are brain based does not automatically lessen ordemean their spiritual significance. Indeed, the findings ofneurological substrates to religious experiences can be argued toprovide evidence for their objective reality.I speculate that our right temporal lobe allows humans to interactwith a timeless space-less "non-local" reality. The clinicalexperience of accessing that reality is an important component inreligious experiences. The existence of such a reality is predicted bymodern quantum theoretical physics.Such a theory has value in that it provides a theoretical explanationfor many well-documented phenomena which currently exist outside ourcurrent theoretical scientific model. I will review its implicationsfor a better understanding of two of them, remote viewing andmind-body healing.For example, one of the difficulties in accepting mind-body healing asmainstream medical therapeutic modality is that there is no coherenttheory of how it might work. If we accept that there is a non-localreality as evidenced by the Aspect experiments, Rupert Sheldrake'smorphic forms would seemingly exist within that non-local reality. Ipostulate that our right temporal lobe is the biological vehicle formorphic resonance, explaining how meditative and dissociative statescan result in corrections to the body's DNA.This theory results in potential scientific studies that can advanceour understanding of human consciousness and paranormal talents. Ipredict that even if my hypothesis is proven wrong, advances inunderstanding mind-body healing will occur in the process ofinvestigating it.INTRODUCTIONAll human experience is brain based. This includes scientificreasoning, mathematical deduction, moral judgement, athletic talentsand spiritual intuitions and perceptions. Understanding theneurobiological basis for encounters with spiritual realities resultsin a new hypothesis which can be experimentally tested. .(Saver 1997)Spiritual experiences such as premonitions of death or near deathexperiences often includes precognition of future events or remoteviewing, which make the experiences incomprehensible from the currentmedical model. As yet, there is no coherent theory to explain howprecognition or remote viewing could work, from a brain biology pointof view. This lack of a theoretical scientific model to allowinteraction with an interconnected universe has led to a 100 year"skeptic" versus "believer" debate which has not advanced ourunderstanding of human consciousness. This debate is primarily aphilosophical one, between atheists and "believers". It has dominatedall areas of paranormal and near-death research, and often is couchedin scientific terminology.(Hansen 1992) The debate itself, by bothskeptics and "believers" fulfills Carl Sagan's definition ofpseudoscience, in that there is little scientific data generated andmany appeals to various authorities as experts.(Sagan 1996)THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES, OUT OF BODY EXPERIENCESAND NEAR DEATH EXPERIENCESThe mesial right temporal lobe, hippocampus, and associated limbiclobe structures are implicated as the biological substrates of out ofbody and religious experiences. The evidence for this includes studiesof temporal lobe pathology, direct electrical stimulation studies,studies of temporal lobe epileptics, experimental studies of neardeath experiences(NDEs), and clinical studies comparing ketamine andLSD experiences and the actions of associated neurotransmitters withinthe human brain.Early case reports demonstrated that tumors in the temporal regionswere often associated with visual hallucinations. These hallucinationsincluded visions of "a strange looking wicked looking woman in adress", to "pictured scenes and mirages", to flashes of light andluminous objects.(Henschen 1925, Jackson 1889-90) For example, onereport of a boy with a cystic glioma in the right temporal loberesulted in a vivid three dimensional vision of a man dressed inwhite.(Cushing 1921). Kennedy was one of the first to identify vividlyreal hallucinations of an audio-visual nature, localized outside ofthe body as being temporal lobe in origin.(Kennedy 1911).Many of the case reports involved patients seeing apparitions beforedeath. This is a well documented clinical phenomenon seen in dyingpatients.(Barrett 1990, Ossis 1977).Direct electrical stimulation studies of deep right temporal lobestructures broaden our understanding of this area, as they provokedout of body perceptions as well as "seeing" memories, and otherelements of NDEs(Moody). For example, in Penfield's series, onepatient stated "oh god, I am leaving my body", and another patientstated "I am half in and half out". In nearby areas in the temporallobe, patients reported hearing heavenly music, seeing vividhallucinations of people, and recalling past memories so vividly thatthey seemed to be as if a three dimensional panorama outside of thebody.(Penfield 1950,1955)A more recent study describes a patient who reported a feeling ofbeing far away from his body on right temporal mesolimbic structurestimulation.(Gloor). Michael Persinger has developed a method of weakelectrical stimulation of the right temporal lobe withoutneurosurgical intervention, which he used to study college students.He describes them as having a "God experience".(Persinger 1987)Temporal epileptics describe having seizures which involve religiouselements, including the sort of dramatic transformations describedafter near death experiences.(Morse 1992) I reported on a 12 year oldgirl who described leaving her physical body, traveling down a tunnelto a place she felt was heaven; not after nearly dying, but in thecontext of EEG findings consistent with right temporal epilepsy(Morse1994) In one series, 88% of patients who saw themselves from a vantagepoint of being outside the body, or seeing one's one body externalizedin space had a temporal lobe focus(Devinsky 1989).Many of the experiences in temporal lobe epileptics involve phenomenasuch as deja vu, jamais vu, memory recall, and visual and auditoryhallucinations.(Palmini 1992, So 1993). Feelings of religious ecstacy(Williams 1956) and double consciousness, meaning the simultaneousexperience of one's ordinary consciousness and the perception ofanother reality are again linked to right temporal lobeepilepsy.(Mendez 1996). Religious conversion is also described.(Dewhurst 1970). Finally, Morgan (1990) makes a direct correlationbetween the religious ecstasies reported in the works of Dostoyevskyand seizures caused by a right temporal lobe astrocytoma. The latterinvolved feelings of detachment, ineffable contentment, visualizing abright light recognized as the source of all knowledge, and seeing"Jesus Christ".Similarities between published accounts of near death experiences andLSD and ketamine induced hallucinations provide further support forthis theory. We applied Greyson's near death experience validity scaleto published accounts of LSD experiences, and found that they scoredas having NDEs. We developed a model of NDEs based on serotoninergicmechanisms, localized within the right temporal lobe(Morse 1989).Jansen has proposed a model based on similarities in ketamineexperiences and NDEs. His model theorizes a neuroprotective benefitfrom the experiences in that the end neurotransmitter L-glutamate maybe both neuroprotective and an endopsychosin. This model gives anevolutionary reason for the development of the experiences as they mayprotect the brain against hypoxia as well as giving an expanded senseof awareness and detachment helpful in life threateningsituations..(Jansen K 1996) Ketamine also acts in the mesiotemporallobes and associated limbic lobe structures.(Morse 1989)THE TEMPORAL LOBE AS LINK TO NON-LOCAL REALITYIn the aforementioned studies, virtually all of the authors describeright temporal lobe experiences as "hallucinations". Dorland defines a"hallucination" as a sense perception not based in objective reality.However, those who describe near death experiences, as well asketamine induced visions state that the experiences are real, andinvolve the perception of a "real" God.(Morse 1990, Jansen, personalcommunication).Furthermore, it is clear from both clinical and experimental evidencethat near death experiences are in fact the dying experience and arenot artifacts of resuscitative efforts, hypoxia, treatment with drugssuch as morphine, or hypercarbnia(Morse 1986, 1991; Whinnery 1990) Wenow have an experimental method of inducing near death experiences,the high speed centrifuge used to study the effects of increasedgravity on fighter pilots. They have "dreamlets" similar to near deathexperiences, at the point when blood flow theoretically is stopping intheir temporal lobes(Jim Whinnery, personal communication 1997).There is reason to believe that there are other realities to perceive.Mathematical Physicist Paul Davies points out that there are threegenerations of leptons and quarks, the fundamental building blocks ofthe universe. The electron has the corresponding muon and tauon, andthere are corresponding quarks with different spins, resulting in 12basic entities of matter. This reality is based on electrons and upand down quarks, and the other particles only last for a fraction of asecond in this universe. It is reasonable to speculate that there areother realities which are muon or tauon based with different quarkpairs.(Davis 1992).Molecular biologist De Duve has concluded that there is a cosmicimperative to develop conscious life.(de Duve 1995) It is respectableto speculate that such a cosmic imperative would exist in other"worlds" as well. This provides a possible solution to the currentclinical problem in which healthy non-psychotic persons perceive otherrealities and beings while in altered states of consciousness.(Hufford1982)A number of speculative books written by mathematicians andtheoretical physicists discussing these issues are numerous, going allthe way back to Wolfgang Pauli who teamed up with Carl Jung to developthe concept of the collective unconscious.(Schrodinger 1944, Zukav1979, Capra 1976, Tiller 1997, Gleick 1987, Peat 1987, Bohm D 1987,Wheeler in Buckley and Peat 1979) All of these books emphasize thattheoretical physics contains the concept of a non-local reality,meaning that events can be independently linked even though there areno forces interconnecting them. Time and space are not immutableconstants in sub-atomic reality.Paul Davies concludes in his book The Mind of God: "We have crackedthe cosmic code. We, who are animated stardust, have a glimpse of therules on which the universe runs. How we have become linked into thiscosmic dimension is a mystery. Yet the linkage cannot be denied."Michio similarly comments that it is not hard to formulate themathematical principles underlying 10 dimensions. "What is hard is tounderstand how we can communicate and interact with them."There are three ways of understanding how the human brain could havenon-local interactions with other realities. Humans could have 1)non-local interactions with other "worlds", or 2) have non-localinteractions in the phenomenal world mediated by the higher (10 or 11)dimensional physical model of reality of which our world is adimensional reduction. The problem with these two models is that theformer involves unknown and currently non-testable mechanisms ofinteraction. The latter requires energy sources seemingly beyond theability of the human brain. (personal communication Chris Clarke,Southhampton University)I am proposing a third model in speculating that our right temporallobe allows for non-local interactions within our ordinary reality dueto quantum non-locality. That such interactions are possible isdocumented by the Aspect experiments. Tippler(1994) has proposed atimeless-spaceless omega point within conventional 4D space-time whichwould explain such interactions. He details a series of experimentsthat would confirm or invalidate its existence.Near death experiences and visionary experiences in general may simplybe the clinical descriptions of our right temporal lobe accessinginformation from a timeless space-less non-local reality. Thesevisions often contain precognitive elements such as those documentedin parents who have had infants die of Sudden Infant DeathSyndrome.(Hennsley JA 1993) If there is a reality independent of time,then precognition would be theoretically possible.PARANORMAL BECOMES NORMAL ONCE WE POSTULATE A BIOLOGICAL LINK WITHNON-LOCAL REALITYIf we can access a non-local reality, then "paranormal" abilitiescould be analyzed as being based on normal right temporal lobefunction. For example, remote viewing is well documented in thelaboratory and is shown to be independent of time and distance(Dunne1987,Utts 1996) . If we are able to access non-local reality, remoteviewing would not only be possible, but expected to be independent oftime and space.Sheldrake has already proposed a model of "morphic forms". These arepatterns of energy in nature which correspond to the physical bodies,memories, and behaviors of living organisms. I am adding to this modelthe speculation that our right temporal lobe is the mediator ofmorphic resonance, the postulated interaction between our brains andmorphic forms. Becker(1985,1990) presents evidence that biologicalresonance and absorption and even transfer of energy occurs at thespecific frequency range at which the hydrogen atom proton is effectedby nuclear magnetic resonance. He demonstrates that Chi Gongpractitioners can effect the NMR spectrum of certain chemicals. Healso makes the intuitive connection that healers may be accessingmorphic forms in non-local reality and using that interaction tocorrect flaws in the body's energy template.Many of the illnesses which respond best to mind-body interventionssuch as cancers and autoimmune diseases, may be understood asresponding to the correction of DNA through morphic resonance,mediated by the right temporal lobe. Kelleher(1998) has described amodel through which spiritual events could result in a change in ourDNA as evidenced by transpon activity, although he does not mentionthe right temporal lobe. Remarkable healings in cancer patients havebeen anecdotally linked to dissociative events and near deathexperiences.(Hirshberg 1995) Benson(Hirshberg page 125) states thathis studies of meditation by Yoga Masters indicates "that there is asource of energy within the human body other than one's we arecurrently aware of". Again, circumstantial evidence links meditationwith right temporal activity. Benson finds a common element inmeditation is to try to find a timeless state of consciousness, andsuggests that patients use the same sort of imagery seen in spiritualvisions.(Benson 1992) Often dissociative experiences, previouslydocumented as right temporal lobe in nature, are the by-products ofmeditation.There is some evidence linking paranormal events and right temporallobe function. Deja vu and premonitions are documented on righttemporal lobe stimulation(Mullan 1959)Professional mediums often have anomalous findings on temporal lobeEEGs(Nelson 1970) Several authors have found an increase in subjectiveparanormal experiences in subjects who also demonstrated "temporallobe lability", meaning that they had an increased number of minorsymptoms associated with temporal lobe epilepsy, but never had aseizure.(Persinger 1993, Neppe VM 1981, Makarec K 1990) Anomalousexperiences of all types have been localized to the temporal lobes, byNeppe(1984).Targ and Katra(1998) have already pointed out similarities betweenmind-body healing, remote viewing, and postulated interactions with anon-local universe. Both remote viewers and spiritual healers reportdissociative experiences as triggering events for their abilities.(Targ and Katra, McMoneagle1993)There are experiments that could be done to validate or disprove myhypothesis. DNA transpon activity can be measured, and alterations byspiritual events or near death experiences documented. It is alsopossible that spiritual experiences could cause measurable alterationsin the human immune system, similar to those seen in studies ofpersonality profiles.(Ader 1991) If a biological marker fordissociative events could be identified, then the presence or absenceof that marker could be evaluated in a variety of situations includingspiritual healings, remote viewing studies, and electrical stimulationinduction of spiritual experiences.Hameroff has proposed that protein microtubules within nervous systemcells mediate energy interactions between the brain and non-localreality.(Hameroff 1997, 1998) The presence of these microtubules couldbe looked for within the right temporal lobe. Presence or absence ofthese proteins could also be correlated with the aforementionedclinical situations.Clinical studies could be done of paranormal abilities such as remoteviewing after right temporal lobe stimulation. There is some evidencethat electromagnetic field activity can alter paranormal abilities(Haraldsson E 1987). These types of studies could be applied to ChiGong and spiritual healing as well.This new model of an interactional universe mediated by our righttemporal lobes explains more data than previous models. It hasspecific areas that can be proven or disproven by reproducibleexperiments. I predict that even if this proposed model ultimatelydoes not withstand the test of time, a new understanding of humanconsciousness will result in investigating it.Melvin Morse M.D.melvinmorse.comAder R, Felten DL, Cohen N (eds) Psychoneuroimmunology. Academic Press1991 Part IV Psychosocial Factors, Stress, Disease, and Immunity. (pg847-931)Barret EAM, Doyle MB, Malinski VM et al: The relationship among theexperience of dying, the experience of paranormal events, andcreativity in adults. In Barrett EAM (ed)Visions of Rogers sciencebased nursing. National League for Nursing Publication No 15-2285 NewYork 1990.Becker RO: The Body Electric: Electromagnetism and the Foundation ofLife. Quill (William Morrow) New York 1985Becker RO: Cross Currents: The Perils of Electropollution, The Promiseof Electromedicine. 1990 Jeremy Tarcher Los AngelesBenson H, Stuart EM: The Wellness Book. Simon and Schuster New York,1992Bohm D, Hiley B: The Causal Interpretation of Quantum theory. NewYork, Bantam Books 1987 (In Science, Order and Creativity, by Bohm D,and Peat D)Capra F: The Tao of Physics. Bantam 1976Carr C: Death and Near Death: A comparison of Tibetan andEuro-American experiences. J Transpersonal Psychol 1993; 25:59-110Cushing: Brain 1921-1922 xliv p341Cushing: Tr. Am Neurol A. 1921 p 374Davis P: The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis of a Rational World.Touchstone, New York 1992de Duve, C: Vital Dust: Life as a Cosmic Imperative. Basic Books 1995Devinsky O, Feldman E, Burrowes K: Autoscopic phenomena with seizures.Arch Neurol 1989 46:1080-1088Dewhurst K, Beard AW: Sudden religious conversions in temporal lobeepilepsy. Br J Psychiatry 1970: 117:497-507Gleick J: Chaos: Making a New Science. Penguin Books 1987Gloor P, Olivier A, Quesney LF et al: The Role of the Limbic System inExperimental Phenomena of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Ann Neurol 198223:129-44Hameroff SR: Fundamentality: Is the conscious Mind Subtly Linked to abasic level of the Universe? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2(4) 119-1271998Hameroff SR: Quantum computing in microtubules: an intraneuralcorrelate of consciousness? Cognitive Studies: Bulletin of theJapanese Cognitive Science Society. 4(3) 67-92Hansen GP: CSICOP and the Skeptics: An Overview. J Am Soc Psych Resvol 86 1/92 pp 19-63Harroldsson E, Gissurarson LR: Does geomagnetic activity affectextrasensory perception?: Personality and Individual Differences8:745-47 1987Hennsley JA, Christenson PJ, Hardoin RA, et al: Premonitions of suddeninfant death syndrome: a retrospective case control study. PediatrPulmonol 1993; 16:393 (abstract)Henschen: Klinische und anatomische Beitrage zur Pathologie desGehirns, Almquist and Wiksells, Upsala, 1890 i-vii Arch f. Psychiat.1925 lxxv p630Hirshberg C, Barasch MI: Remarkable Recovery. New York Riverhead Books1995Hufford DJ: The Terror That Comes in the Night. University ofPennsylvania Press 1982Jackson and Beevor: Brain 1889-90 xii p346Jansen K: Neuroscience, ketamine, and the near death experience. inThe Near Death Reader, ed Bailey LW, Yates J. New York, Rutledge 1996265-282Kaku, M: Hyperspace. Plenum Press, New York 1977Kelleher C: Retrotranspons as Engines of Human Bodily Transformation.J Sci Ex(accepted for publication)Kennedy: Arch Int Med 1911 viii p317.Kirschvink, Kobayashi-Kirschvink, Woolford: Magnetitiebiomineralization in the human brain. Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Science. 89 7683-7687. 1992Makarec K, Persinger MA: Electroencephalographic validation of atemporal lobe signs inventory in a normal population. J Research inPersonality 1990 24 323-337McMoneagle J: Mind Trek: Exploring consciousness, Time, and Spacethrough Remote Viewing. Hampton Roads, Charlottesville, VA. 1993Mendez MP, Engebrit B, Doss R: The relationship of epileptic auras andpsychological attributes. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 19968:287-292Moody, R: Life After Life. Mockingbird Press 1975.Morgan H: Doestoyevsky's epilepsy: A case report and comparison. SurgNeurol 1990 33:413-416Morse ML, Castillo P, Venecia D: Childhood Near Death Experiences. AmJ dis Child 1986 140:110-4Morse ML, Neppe V: Near Death Experiences (letter) Lancet 1991 337-386Morse ML, Venecia D, Milstein J: Near Death Experiences: ANeurophysiological Explanatory Model. J Near Death Studies, 1989 Fall8(1)45-53.Morse ML, Perry P: Closer to the Light. Villard Books 1990Morse ML, Perry P: Transformed by the Light. Villard Books 1992Morse ML: Near Death Experiences and Death Related Visions:Implications for the Clinician. Current Problems in Pediatrics. Feb1994 55-83Mullin S, Penfield W: Illusions of comparative Interpretation andEmotion. Archives of Neurology and Psych vol 81 March 1959 269-285Nelson GK: Preliminary study of the EEG of mediums. Parapsychologica1970 4:30-45Neppe VM: PSI, genetics, and the temporal lobes. ParapsychologicalJournal of South Africa. 1981 2: 35-55Neppe VM: The Temporal Lobe and Anomalous Experience.Parapsychological Journal of South Africa 1984 5:1 36-47Palmini A, Gloor P: The Localizing value of auras in partial seizures.Neurology 1992 42:801-806Penfield W, Rasmussen T: The Cerebral Cortex of Man: A Clinical Studyof Localization of Function. New York MacMillan 1950, 162-181Penfield W: The role of the temporal cortex in certain psychicalphenomena. J Ment Sci 1955 101:451-65Persinger M: The Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs. Praeger NewYork 1987Persinger MA, Makarec K: Complex partial epileptic signs as acontinuum from normal to epileptics: normative data and clinicalpopulations. J Clin Psychol 1993 49: 33-45Osis K, Harroldsson E: At The Hour of Death. Avon Books, New York 1977Peat D: Synchronicity: The Bridge Between Mind and Matter. BantamBooks 1987Sagan C: The Demon Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Darkness.Ballantine Books, New York.Strieber W: Communion. Beech Tree Books 1987Saver JL, Rabin J: The Neural Substrates of Religious Experience.Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 1997 9:498-510Schrodinger E: What is Life. Cambridge University Press 1994Sheldrake R: A New Science of Life. Park Street Press 1987Targ R, Katra J: Miracles of Mind: Exploring Nonlocal Consciousnessand Spiritual Healing. New World Library, Novato, California. 1998Tiller W: Science and Human Transformation. Pavior 1997Tippler FJ: The Physics of Immortality. Anchor books 1994Utts J: "An assessment of the evidence for psychic functioning". JSE10:3-30Whinnery JE, Whinnery AM: Acceleration Induced Loss of Consciousness.Arch Neurol 1990 47:764-766Williams D: The structure of emotions reflecting in epilepticexperiences. Brain 1956 79:29-67Zukav g: The Dancing Wu Li Masters. Bantam 1979

[Guest guest]

YEEHA!

 

Great stuff Duncan.

 

I've got to get some, before the powers that be

catch on and close this door too.

 

One question: If one grows it here, does it

still have the samw qualities as when it

is grown in Oaxaca?

 

By the way, Bouncing Bear is sold out of plants.

 

Ien in the Kootenays, Sinixt Territory**********************************"It is never too late to be what you mighthave been."~George Eliothttp://wildhealing.netsaving the rainforest, one cup of tea at the time!**********************************

 

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Duncan Crow

Monday, May 24, 2004 7:54 AM

Re: THE BIOLOGICAL INTERFACE WITH AN INTERCONNECTED UNIVERSE

There are more applicable passages in this article, but I wanted to point out the 'connectedness to the whole universe' and 'exploring the farthest reaches of the cosmos' and 'parallel universes' (non-local reality) described by people who use Salvia Divinorum.Yes, they can remember the whole thing, and there are no side effects.See more on Salvia Divinorum here:http://members.shaw.ca/duncancrow/herbs.html#Salviaand referenced work on its reduction of drug dependency here:http://members.shaw.ca/duncancrow/salvia_kappa_opioid.htmlregards,Duncan Crow> > PARANORMAL BECOMES NORMAL ONCE WE POSTULATE A BIOLOGICAL LINK WITH> NON-LOCAL REALITY> > If we can access a non-local reality, then "paranormal" abilities> could be analyzed as being based on normal right temporal lobe> function. For example, remote viewing is well documented in the> laboratory and is shown to be independent of time and distance(Dunne> 1987,Utts 1996) . If we are able to access non-local reality, remote> viewing would not only be possible, but expected to be independent of> time and space.> > > Targ and Katra(1998) have already pointed out similarities between> mind-body healing, remote viewing, and postulated interactions with a> non-local universe. Both remote viewers and spiritual healers report> dissociative experiences as triggering events for their abilities.> (Targ and Katra, McMoneagle1993)«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§«¤»¥«¤»§ - PULSE ON WORLD HEALTH CONSPIRACIES! §Subscribe:......... - To :.... - Any information here in is for educational purpose only, it may be news related, purely speculation or someone's opinion. Always consult with a qualified health practitioner before deciding on any course of treatment, especially for serious or life-threatening illnesses.**COPYRIGHT NOTICE**In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107,any copyrighted work in this message is distributed under fair use without profit or payment to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving the included information for non-profit research and educational purposes only. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml