the Physiology of Meditation

[Guest guest]

by Dr. Jooyoung Julia Shin, M.D.

 

   Introduction

 

   Eastern religious and secular groups, such as the Buddhists, Taoists, an=

d the Indian

Yogis have practiced meditation throughout history in order to achieve cert=

ain mental

and physical ends; these include muscular relaxation and "clearing" the min=

d, as well

as the more esoteric union with  nature or God. For these practitioners, me=

ditation

further serves to reduce negative tensions in  both conscious and subconsci=

ous

realms, and facilitates the integration of an individual into her  or his p=

hysical, social

and psychological environment. A variety of these ideas were incorporated i=

nto the

philosophy of the martial arts as they developed in Asia.

 

   In contrast to most exercise cultures, the martial arts actively strive =

to develop both

the inner and outer individual, guided by a holistic view of human nature. =

The union

of mind and body lies fundamental to martial art philosophy and practice, w=

hich

consists of both mental and physical exercises. The practice of meditation =

 

characterizes the martial arts as a psychophysical engagement, as opposed t=

o a

purely physical activity. Although diverse types of meditation exist, all m=

editative

techniques attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way without discur=

sive or

discriminating thought. By muting the analytical, reasoning functions of th=

e mind one

achieves a sort of non-discriminatory or relaxed awareness. In the martial =

arts, this

state has been given various descriptions such as "Satori,enlightenment,=

" or

"Zanshin."

 

   Eastern philosophers have known for centuries that the practice of medit=

ation

allows the human mind to transcend thinking processes into a state of thoug=

htless

awareness. Given the complicated structure of the brain, with its multitude=

of

neurons, infinite possibilities of synaptic connections, and numerous chemi=

cal

mediators, this transcendent state may one day have a physiological explana=

tion.

Indeed, increasing scientific and popular interest in the Eastern practices=

of

meditation has accumulated significant empirical evidence about the physiol=

ogical

modifications produced by the practice of meditation; these include metabol=

ic,

autonomic, encephalographic, and psychological effects. These scientific st=

udies

clearly show that the meditative state of awareness is distinct from a norm=

al everyday

awareness bound by logic and reason, and validate the traditional Eastern b=

elief that

mental function has a direct implication on physical function.

 

 

   The Physiology of Meditation

 

   A review of the scientific literature on meditation reveals that its pra=

ctice can

provide numerous benefits for the martial artist. For example, meditation c=

an reduce

stress and anxiety, enhance motor reflexes, increase motor control, increas=

e exercise

tolerance, sharpen perceptions, increase awareness, improve concentration, =

maintain

health, provide a general positive outlook on life, and foster the developm=

ent of a

sense of personal meaning in the world.

 

   In general, meditation produces a reduction in multiple biological syste=

ms,

resulting in a state of relaxation. These changes are, in most studies, sig=

nificantly

different between meditating and non-meditating groups. Benson (1975) argue=

s that

this physiological response pattern is not unique to meditation per se, but=

is common

to any passive relaxation procedure. Although some studies have found no

physiological or overt behavioral differences between meditation and other =

relaxation

techniques, it is significant to note that subjects report meditational exp=

eriences as

more profound and enjoyable than their comparative control groups (Cauthen =

&

Prymak 1977, Kohr 1977). These subjective differences may have critical rel=

evance

from a clinical or research perspective.

 

   Scientific studies reveal that meditation produces a specific physiologi=

cal response

pattern that involves various biological systems. The mechanisms most frequ=

ently

suggested to mediate or produce meditative effects include metabolic, auton=

omic,

endocrine, neurological, and psychological observations. Precisely how thes=

e

mechanisms are involved in producing the final pattern of responses is yet =

unclear.

The vast complexity of biological organization indicates that the physiolog=

ical

response to meditation probably occurs on a multidimensional, interactive b=

asis.

 

 

   Meditation and Metabolism

 

   Mental states can markedly alter physiologic function. For example, stre=

ssful

situations result in a hypermetabolic state, with increased oxygen consumpt=

ion, heart

rate, and blood pressure. In contrast, the majority of scientific studies s=

how

meditation to be a wakeful state accompanied by a decreased metabolism. Thi=

s

generalized decrease in body metabolism manifests with a decreased breathin=

g

pattern, decreased heart rate, and decreased blood pressure. There is also =

a marked

decrease in the level of oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide elimination =

by muscle.

These findings have been verified by an impressive number of studies.[FN1] =

 

 

   Oxygen consumption is generally regarded as a reliable index of physical=

activity

and arousal. For example, exercise requires an increased consumption of oxy=

gen by

muscle. During this metabolic process, oxygen is converted to carbon dioxid=

e, which

is eliminated by the lungs. If the body is starved of oxygen, reduced oxyge=

n

consumption does not lead to a parallel reduction in carbon dioxide elimina=

tion

because the cells continue to metabolize the remaining oxygen in the blood.=

 

Therefore, oxygen starvation causes a decrease in the concentration of oxyg=

en and

an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood. The r=

elative

amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood is called the respiratory =

quotient.

During normal respiratory processes, this quotient remains constant; in abn=

ormal

respiratory situations, however, the reduction in available oxygen and incr=

ease in

carbon dioxide changes the quotient. Wallace et al (1971) found that during=

the

practice of meditation the amount of carbon dioxide elimination drops in pr=

oportion

to the amount of oxygen consumed; therefore, the respiratory quotient remai=

ns

constant. In conclusion, the metabolic changes of meditation arise from a n=

atural

reduction in metabolic activity at the cellular level, not from a forced re=

duction of

breathing.

 

   Circulation, especially in muscle and brain, is closely related to the m=

etabolic

requirements of tissues, and is very sensitive and consistent in its respon=

se to

behavior. A study by Jevning et al (1996) illustrates an interesting redist=

ribution in the

blood flow of meditators. Blood flow to the kidneys and liver declined in p=

ractitioners,

with a surprising increase in cardiac output. These changes of blood flow i=

mply a

marked redistribution of blood flow during meditation. It is hypothesized t=

hat most of

the distributed circulation must be to the brain, a hypothesis that has bee=

n supported

by direct estimation of increased relative cerebral blood flow (Herzog et a=

l 1990,

Jevning et al 1992, Jevning et al 1996). The redistribution of blood flow w=

ith an

increase in cardiac output has interesting significance for the pattern of =

metabolic

changes elicited by meditation; although the response to meditation is hypo=

metabolic

overall, it appears likely that there is a concomitant increase in the meta=

bolism of

certain tissues.

 

 

   Meditation and the Autonomic Nervous System

 

   Skin resistance to electrical current provides a measure of autonomic ne=

rvous

system reactivity. An increase in the skin resistance of meditators has bee=

n reported

by several groups.[FN2] Increase in skin resistance indicates a decrease in=

skin

conduction and a reduction in its fluctuations. It is well established that=

skin

resistance decreases in states of anxiety or stress, and increases during r=

elaxation.

The large increases in skin resistance of meditators found in these studies=

are

impressive.

 

   Galvanic skin response, or GSR, was used to measure recovery from stress=

; a study

by Orme-Johnson (1973) showed that meditators recovered from stress more qu=

ickly

than non-meditators. Specifically, habituation of the GSR to stress was fas=

ter for

meditators than for controls, and meditators made fewer multiple responses =

during

habituation, indicating greater stability in response to stress. In other e=

xperiments,

meditators produced fewer spontaneous GSR than their non-meditating control=

s,

both during and while out of meditation. Spontaneous GSR is defined as spon=

taneous

fluctuations in skin resistance and the frequency of spontaneous GSR define=

s the

lability of an individual to stress. For example, the frequency rises with =

anger, fear,

and increased epinephrine and norepinephrine blood levels. Those individual=

s with

lower frequencies of spontaneous GSR exhibit more effective behavior in a n=

umber of

stressful situations, are less impulsive on motor tasks, and have quicker p=

erceptions.

Rapid GSR habituation and low levels of spontaneous GSR are reported in the=

 

literature to be correlated with physiological and behavioral characteristi=

cs associated

with good mental health. Therefore, meditation benefits practitioners by de=

creasing

the frequency of spontaneous GSR. In general, these studies indicate that m=

editators

possess a more adaptive pattern of stress response than controls.

 

   On another level, meditation produces specific neural activation pattern=

s involving

decreased limbic arousal in the brain (Schwartz 1975). Since the limbic sys=

tem

contains the hypothalamus, which controls the autonomic nervous system, red=

uction

in limbic arousal may explain how meditation reduces stress and increases a=

utonomic

stability to stress. Ultimately, meditation strengthens and enhances the ab=

ility to cope

with stress.

 

 

   Meditation and the Endocrine System

 

   Based upon the metabolic characteristics of meditation and the subjectiv=

e reports

of meditators, several studies were initiated in order to ascertain whether=

the blood

levels of stress-related chemicals decreased during this practice. A number=

of

endocrine reactions have been identified in the meditative response pattern=

, including

reduced blood levels of lactate, cortisol, and epinephrine (Wallace 1970, S=

udsuang et

al 1991). The reductions in these blood chemicals denote a state of decreas=

ed tension

and anxiety. For example, the infusion of lactate can produce anxiety sympt=

oms in

normal subjects (Wallace et al 1971); the decrease in lactate concentration=

during and

after meditation may explain the subjective feelings of wakeful relaxation.=

These

studies further reveal that the reduction in stress-related chemicals persi=

sts into the

post-meditation period. The most likely explanation of these results seems =

to be that

the long-term practice of meditation develops a psychophysiological respons=

e of

persistent decreased endocrine activity, thereby reducing sensitivity to st=

ress. It has

been recently demonstrated that meditation reduces sympathetic adrenergic r=

eceptor

sensitivity, producing a decreased response to stressful situations (Mills =

et al 1990).

 

   Certain studies have also found unique patterns of blood hormone levels =

and blood

flow to a number of organs including the brain (Jevning & O'Halloran 1984).=

Increased

levels of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), melatonin, and dehydroepiandroste=

rone

sulfate (DHEA-S) have been reported (Glaser et al 1992, Elias & Wilson 1995=

, Massion

et al 1995). Meditation is associated with changes in the secretion and rel=

ease of

several pituitary hormones. The hormonal changes induced by meditation mimi=

c the

effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. Elias and Wilson (1995) hy=

pothesize

that meditation produces its anxiolytic effects by promoting GABA action in=

specific

areas of the brain, via a mechanism similar to the effects of synthetic anx=

iolytic and

tranquilizing agents. Melatonin has been associated with a variety of biolo=

gic

functions important in maintaining health and preventing disease, and the s=

erum

level of the adrenal androgen DHEA-S has also been associated with measures=

of

health and stress. For example, increased levels of DHEA-S has been connect=

ed with

a reduction in age-related disorders such as cardiovascular diseases and br=

east

cancer. DHEA-S excretion also decreases in times of stress; since meditator=

s have

been shown to have an attenuated autonomic response to stressors (Orme-John=

son

1973), the higher DHEA-S levels found in during meditation may  provide pro=

tection

against stressor stimulation of the adrenal gland.

 

   That the physical effects of meditation persist after the meditation per=

iod itself has

ended is demonstrated by the fact that hypertension can be effectively cont=

rolled by

meditation alone without the use of anti-hypertensive drugs (Schneider et a=

l 1995).

Meditation has also been shown to have long-term effects on the endocrine s=

ystem

(Werner et al 1986). Another recent study (Zamarra et al 1996) reveals that=

meditators

have a general increased exercise tolerance and maximal cardiac workload as=

 

compared to non-meditators.

 

 

   Meditation and the Central Nervous System

 

   Interestingly, the practice of meditation decreases muscle reflex time (=

Warshal

1980, Robertson 1983). Significant reductions in reflex time provides possi=

ble

neurological evidence for the improved motor performance skills reported in=

other

studies on meditation, such as higher performance on perceptual-motor speed=

tests,

static motor performance tests, and physical task tests of balance.[FN3] Me=

ditation

may somehow accelerate neural conduction or augment the release of

neurotransmitters, thereby decreasing synaptic time, resulting in a change =

in muscle

firing threshold and pattern. These findings appear consistent with the dev=

elopment

of a heightened sensitivity of the human central nervous system and suggest=

a neural

mechanism underlying the motor performance improvements of those who medita=

te.

 

   Studies of brain physiology during meditation have most frequently emplo=

yed the

electroencephalograph (EEG) for the measurement of brain wave electrical ac=

tivity.

With most meditative practices the EEG patterns exhibit a slowing and

synchronization of brain waves, with alpha waves predominating. More advanc=

ed

practitioners of meditation demonstrate an even greater slowing of their br=

ain waves,

with the possible emergence of theta wave patterns.[FN4] These patterns are=

 

consistent with deep relaxation. Alpha rhythm is the classical EEG correlat=

e for a state

of relaxed wakefulness, also described as relaxed vigilance (Niedermeyer & =

Da Silva

1993). Indeed, emotional tension attenuates or blocks the alpha rhythm. The=

ta

activity is associated with emotional processes and indicates relative matu=

rity of the

mechanisms linking the cortex, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus; theta rh=

ythm

also occurs during a state of maximal awareness (Niedermeyer & Da Silva 199=

3).

Apparently, an alpha wave pattern is most conducive to creativity and to th=

e

assimilation of new concepts, while the theta responseseems to be a stage a=

t which

the mind is capable of deep insights and intuition. It is significant to no=

te that

practiced meditators can continue to exhibit alpha and theta waves after th=

e

meditation period has ended (Wallace et al 1971).

 

   One study compared different types of breathing during meditation and di=

scovered

that diaphragmatic, or deep breathing was associated more with an EEG alpha=

 

response than thoracic breathing (Timmons et al 1972). Meditative tradition=

s place a

great deal of importance on breathing; indeed, breath becomes the object of=

 

awareness in most methods. Specifically, Taoist and Zen traditions of medit=

ation have

historically placed great value in abdominal breathing, consistent with the=

popular

belief that the vital center, or hara, is located in the abdomen (Huard 197=

1). The

study by Timmons and collaborators validates the merit of deep abdominal br=

eathing.

 

   The cortex of the brain is popularly believed to consist of two halves, =

the left and

right hemispheres. Although simplistic, activities such as speech, logical =

thinking,

analysis,  sense of time are thought to function in the left hemisphere, wh=

ile the

ability to recognize faces and comprehend maps is thought to function in th=

e right

hemisphere. On the physiological level, it has been demonstrated that the t=

wo

hemispheres of the cortex are specialized for different modes of informatio=

n-

processing; the left hemisphere operates primarily in a verbal, intellectua=

l, sequential

mode, while the right hemisphere operates primarily in a spatial oriented m=

ode. The

right hemisphere concerns space more than time, and intuition more than log=

ic or

language. The right lobe also houses the purported center of motor skills c=

onnected

with spatial awareness. Most people, under scientific measurement, demonstr=

ate a

marked preponderance towards left hemisphere usage.

 

   Several authors hypothesize that systems of meditation alter consciousne=

ss by

inhibiting cognitive functions associated with the dominant or left cortica=

l

hemisphere. Ornstein (1975), for example, states that meditation "turns off=

" the

verbal, linear, analytic style of information processing associated with th=

e normal

waking state. By inhibiting the left cortical hemisphere, the sense of time=

and logic no

longer dominate consciousness during meditation. In association with this r=

epression

of the left hemisphere occurs a hypothesized shift to the right hemispheric=

manner of

experience, described as holistic, receptive, and beyond language or logic.=

Since it is

nonlinear, the right cortical hemisphere devalues the concept of cause and =

effect.

Davidson (1976) argues that meditation leads to the development of right he=

misphere

associated abilities. This assertion has been verified by several research =

projects;

meditators show faster reaction times on simple visual reaction time tasks,=

thus

demonstrating that meditation facilitates right hemisphere specific abiliti=

es (Appelle &

Oswald 1974, Holt et al 1978, Pagano & Frumkin 1977). Furthermore, EEG alph=

a and

theta wave coherence is most marked in the right cortical hemisphere during=

the

practice of meditation (Gaylord et al 1989).

 

   Other analyses suggest the existence of synchronization patterns both be=

tween

corresponding areas of the two cortical hemispheres and within individual

hemispheres (Glueck & Stroebel 1978). Some tests indicate that the EEG acti=

vation

patterns in meditators display a greater flexibility in shifting between he=

mispheres in

response to the demands of specific tasks (Bennet & Trinder 1977); this rep=

resents an

integration of the left and right hemispheres of the brain, synchronizing t=

he logical

with the intuitive.

 

 

   Meditation and Psychology

 

   The research literature on meditation suggests that practitioners experi=

ence

subjective phenomena, such as pronounced feelings of "self-transcendence," =

"felt

meaning in the world,a heightened sense of connectedness with the world,=

" and "a

sense of purpose and meaningfulness"[FN5]; these subjective experiences inv=

olve

radically revised perceptions of self and the external world. Mood changes =

include

happiness, freedom from anxiety, content with self, and greater vitality. O=

ther articles

also suggest that meditators gain enhanced confidence, a sense of self-cont=

rol,

empathy, and self-actualization (Hjelle 1974). Several investigators conclu=

de that the

practice of meditation improves cognitive task performance, increases menta=

l

concentration, and reduces susceptibility to stress.[FN6] As described abov=

e, many

researchers report that meditation reduces the biological components of anx=

iety. In

general, meditation promotes psychological health (Gaylord et al 1989, Geld=

erloos et

al 1990).

 

   Other psychological consequences of meditation include decreased anger a=

roused

in high-anger situations (Dua & Swinden 1992) and an increased concentratio=

n for

mental as well as physical tasks (Dhume & Dhume 1991). Indeed, Davidson et =

al

(1976) found that experienced meditators had significantly increased attent=

ional

absorption and that attentional absorption increased as the length of medit=

ation

experience increased. Long-term meditators appear to possess a more develop=

ed

ability to voluntarily control attention.

 

   A general profile of psychological well-being and perceptual sensitivity=

emerges

from various studies on meditation. Some of the more commonly reported

experiences include amplified perceptual clarity, widened range of psycholo=

gical

insights, and greater openness to experience.[FN7] As Walsh writes (1984), =

 

"Sensitivity and clarity frequently seem enhanced following a meditation si=

tting or

retreat. Thus, for example, at these times it seems that I can discriminate=

visual

forms and outlines more clearly. It also feels as though empathy is signifi=

cantly

increased and that I am more aware of other people's subtle behaviors, voca=

l

intonations, etc., as well as my own affective responses to them." One of t=

he

fundamental objective observations of the enhanced perceptual sensitivity o=

f

meditators is a decrease in both absolute and discrimination sensory thresh=

olds[FN8];

these include a more subtle awareness of previously known concepts and an

increased perception of previously unrecognized phenomena. Thus, both subje=

ctive

and objective examinations agree that meditation enhances perceptual sensit=

ivity.

 

 

   Conclusion

 

   The concept of meditation arose within the philosophical framework of Ea=

stern

religious and spiritual disciplines. These traditions practice meditative t=

echniques in

order to maintain physical health, induce altered states of consciousness, =

develop

insight, achieve peace, and gain spiritual strength as well as spiritual pu=

rification. In

these ways, meditation modifies the perception of the world and promotes a =

more

unified conception of self, nature, and humanity. Martial arts training, by=

including

the practice of meditation, encourages the development of these attributes =

and

fosters a more intuitive way of relating to life. Formal meditation refers =

to the practice

of meditation at specific times, in a specific place and posture, as practi=

ced in a

Taekwondo dojang. Informal meditation, however, requires no specifications,=

but can

be practiced at any time and place. The primary goal of meditation in the m=

artial arts

is not simply to be able to make a meditative effort during formal sittings=

, but to

maintain and generalize conscious attention to all aspects of martial arts =

practice and

life in general, thereby eliminating mental tension.

 

   Ultimately, the greatest achievement in the martial arts is the simultan=

eous

refinement of mind and body. The special training of consciousness effectiv=

ely

regulates every biological system of the body as well as its technical and =

mechanical

facilities. Cultivation of the mind leads to cultivation of the body, leadi=

ng to further

cultivation of the mind and so on, eventually attaining an exquisite level =

of

cooperation and coordination between the two.

 

 

 

 

   Notes

 

 

 

 

 

FN1 Reduced heart rate -- Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Delmonte 1984, =

Zeier

1984, Sudsuang et al 1991, Telles et al 1995  Decreased Blood Pressure -- W=

allace et

al 1971, Wallace et al 1983, Delmonte 1984, Sudsuang et al 1991, Schneider =

et al

1995  Decreased oxygen consumption -- Wallace 1970, Allison 1970, Wallace e=

t al

1971, Hirai 1974, Fenwick et al 1977, Zeier 1984, Wilson et al 1987, Benson=

et al

1990  Decreased carbon dioxide generation by muscle -- Wallace 1970, Wallac=

e et al

1971, Wilson et al 1987, Jevning et al 1992

 

FN2 Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Orme-Johnson 1973, Delmonte 1984, Tel=

les et

al 1995

 

FN3 Kolb 1974, Orme-Johnson et al 1976, Jedrczak et al 1986, Dhume & Dhume =

 

1991, Telles et al 1994

 

FN4 Wallace 1970, Wallace et al 1971, Banquet 1973, Hirai 1974, Corby et al=

1978,

Dillbeck & Vesely 1986, Gaylord et al 1989, Jevning et al 1992

 

FN5 Osis et al 1973, Kohr 1977, Severtsen & Bruya 1986, Bogart 1991

 

FN6 Blasdell 1973, Orme-Johnson 1973, Appelle & Oswald 1974, Keller & Serag=

anian

1984, Severtsen & Bruya 1986, Gaylord et al 1989, Dhume & Dhume 1991, Jin 1=

992,

Tsai & Crockett 1993, Janowiak & Hackman 1994, Elias & Wilson 1995, Telles =

et al

1995

 

FN7 Banquet 1973, Osis et al 1973, Shapiro 1980, Walsh 1984, Brown et al 19=

84

 

FN8 Davidson et al 1976, Brown et al 1984, Freed 1989, Colby 1991

 

 

 

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