The wonder that was India - The Week

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By R. Prasannan

In the beginning there was stone. Armed with his thumb, man fashioned tools out

of stone, and gathered his food. With stone, he drew pictures on the walls of

the caves he lived in. Then he built houses to live in, and dolmens to bury the

dead. They were the first Taj Mahals. More than anything else, the stone—be it

the rubble stone on which Asoka wrote his edicts, the granite with which

Buddhist caityas and Hindu temples were carved, the marble that Shahjehan

fancied, the laterite that the Portuguese used for building Goan churches or

the red and white sandstones that Lutyens got from Dholpur—has been the medium

through which rising and falling civilisations bequeathed their legacies to

posterity. Most of everything else has perished or worn down by the sands of

time.

Temple-prolific and built to last: The famous Sun Temple at Konark (above right)

The story of India’s monuments also reflects the saga of the wonder that was

India. Nowhere else does one see such a variety of monuments. Except perhaps a

Chinese great wall, or a few pyramids, every type of architecture is present in

India. Till now only the Taj Mahal, that arch through which dreams pass as

Fergusson put it, has made it into the list of the world’s wonders. But there

are many more monuments in India, explored and listed, but yet to be recognised

as wonders. We list a few such wonders in the following pages.

The story of India’s monuments has been divided into seven periods, depending on

the political culture that prevailed during the period. Interestingly, most of

these cultures are still extant in India. Thus one finds Hindu India still

going strong in Rajaputana and the south even when the Islamic sultanate’s flag

was flying in Hindustan. The same trend continues to this day. One can still see

the same primeval rock-carvers still drawing sketches on cave walls in forests.

Or temples Chandela-Pratihara style still being built on the banks of the

Yamuna in Delhi.

This co-existence of cultures has made the classification a bit difficult

chronologically. The first period, the proto-historic period, represents a

stage in the evolution of the Indian man when he was yet to build his own

house. This cave-man continued to live even when his Harappan cousins were

building well-drained cities and trading with west Asian ports, or when Ajantas

and Elloras were being chiselled out in the Buddhist period. Ironically, a neat

classification could be attempted only in the case of the Harappan period

because of our own ignorance of that culture. It stands out differently from

what is known about the period before it—and what came afterwards.

The original Vedic period could have been around this time, but the absence of

Vedic monuments from that time is a major problem confronted by antiquarians.

It is possible, as many historians argue, that the primary construction

material of the Vedic Indian was wood. This would have rotted away, leaving

nothing to look at and wonder, save the great texts composed in the period.

Well-chronicled history began only after this, perhaps starting with the

historically detailed life of the Buddha, the well-chronicled invasion of

Alexander and the evidence available about the Mauryan empires. The oldest

remains of man-built stone structures, save the Harappan brick cities, date

back to this era.

The decline of Buddhism and the revival of the Vedic religion were evident even

at the time of the Guptas and Harsha, but since classification requires

landmarks, one may be permitted to start the Hindu period with Sankara.

Politically, empires of Macedonian or Mauryan scale vanished during this

period; in their place came up innumerable smaller ones, building temples which

exist to this day and forts which have since crumbled or been built over. The

end of this period is well-marked in the north, with the Ghazni-Ghori invasions

and the erection of the Qutab Minar. But in the south the Hindu period continued

with the Cholas and later Chalukyas till the fall of the temple-prolific

Vijayanagar empire.

The end of the sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal period is historically

marked on the battle of Panipat, but politically the sultanate continued well

into the Mughal era. The Mughals were even routed for a while by the Suri

sultans, and the Khiljis and Tughlaqs continued to rule over various parts of

central India till Akbar demanded their submission. Architecturally, however,

the beginning of the Mughal period could be zeroed in on the building of

Humayun’s tomb.

Though the first European churches were built by the Portuguese during or even

before the Mughals, politically the European period began only after the

decline of the Mughal empire and the battle of Plassey that laid the foundation

of the British empire in India.

Going through the pattern of monuments that each culture wanted to last, one may

wonder: did each of them want a particular type of monument to last. Of course

they all had palaces, forts, shrines and so on. But we hardly ever see a

Buddhist period fort or a Hindu period palace. Apparently, each culture chose

one or two types of monuments only to last. Thus the Buddhist built their

caityas and cave temples to last, the Hindu period kings wanted their temples

to last. The sultans wanted their tombs and mosques to last, the Mughals their

forts, palaces and of course tombs and mosques, and the Europeans their

churches and state buildings.

The one common item in this list is the shrine. Call it caitya, temple, mosque

or church, every period built it to last. Nowhere else in the world does one

find so many of them, and in such variety, ‘enshrining’ a spirit that has

survived millennia.

 

Writing on the wallsProto-historic period: Pictures of his dance, along with

scenes of his hunt, have been preserved in various caves

By R. Prasannan

History textbooks start the story of India with the Harappans. But then, the

Harappans could not have just come out of nowhere and built cities, ports and

docks and vanished into oblivion. As J.C. Harle says, "traces of human

activity, almost entirely limited to animal remains and to flint tools and

weapons, have been found in India stretching back at least 1,50,000 years.

Relatively recently on this time scale, the inhabitants of the subcontinent

discovered fire and commenced—not necessarily in this order—to domesticate

animals, to raise crops, to make and decorate pottery, to use metals, and to

construct permanent buildings. These Neolithic and Chalcolithic societies were

not innocent of art in the widest sense, as proved by the not infrequent beauty

of form and finish of their pots and of their copper and bronze implements.

Human and animal figures in terracotta are fairly common, and they have also

been found scratched and painted on rock surfaces."

The cave paintings of India belong to various periods—from proto-historic

sketches of the Neolithic man found at Edakkal caves in Kerala to Bhimbetka to

the ‘eastman colour’ productions at Ajanta and Ellora which belong partly to

the Buddhist and partly to the Hindu period. Our concern here is only about the

art and architecture of the protohistoric Indians, some of whom lived before the

Harappans, some of whom were their contemporaries, and some of whom are our

‘Adivasi’ neighbours.

Historically, the existing paintings were all wonders left by Neolithic man. The

Old Stoner, or the paleolith, could neither make pottery nor fire. This man, the

Old Stoner, left hardly anything for us to look at and awe, except a few chipped

stones which only the trained eye of an archaeologist can pick out from the

rubble it is found amidst.

So the wonder that was India began with the New Stoner, who painted the walls of

Bhimbetka and Edakkal and probably buried his dead in the sepulchres, some of

them shaped like umbrellas. As for his resources, he had two. One of course was

the stone, and the other, was gold!

How was the New Stoner different from his great grandfather of the old stone?

The Old Stoner was essentially a hunter-gatherer. The new stone man, on the

other hand, cultivated land, grew fruits, domesticated the cow, produced fire

and made pots, first by hand and then with the potter’s wheel.

The potter’s wheel, thus, was the first complicated machine, or machine-tool,

ever invented by man. Everything else before it was just a straight tool for

carving, cleaving or throwing. The wheel, on the other hand, was a

machine-tool, which did not carve or cleave, but produced something it did not

touch.

The wheel and the crop from the farmlands gave the New Stoner something that is

considered essential for the flowering of culture—spare time for hobbies. Some

kind of crude music was obvioulsy born then, maybe by imitating wild or

domesticated animals. There is no evidence of the New Stoner’s music. But we

know that he danced. For pictures of his dance, along with scenes of his hunt,

have been preserved in various caves in many parts of India.

But the biggest wonder about the New Stoner is his burial practice. World over,

the Neolithic men built dolmens of three or more stones carrying a huge roof

stone. Quite a few of these sepulchres belong chronologically to the

post-Harappa period, but then the culture that built them was Neolithic.

Very few of the Neolithic settlements have been discovered. But there are clues

as to what happened to them. For example, below the major Harappan finds of

Kalibangan, archaeologists have found traces of a pre-Harappan settlement. The

Kalibangans built a mud-brick wall over the deposits of a pre-Harappan

settlement. In that case, it could be surmised that the Harappans were merely

great grandsons of the New Stoner.

EDAKKAL CAVESSituated: At a height of 1,000m on Ambukutty Mala near Ambalavayal, Wayanad, Kerala

Historic significance: A habitat of Neolithic (i.e., late Stone Age, 4000

BC-1700 BC) people. One of the very few places in India where prehistoric

drawings in stone have been found. There are three distinct sets of

petroglyphs, the earliest thought to date back to 5,000 years. The rock surface

has linear motifs like crosses, triangles and tridents; a rectangle divided into

nine square-shaped chambers; stars, wheels and quatrefoils; spirals, whorls and

volutes; plant motifs, pot-shaped items; various animals. Five ancient

inscriptions have been identified of which, two have been deciphered.

The way we were

By Deepak Tiwari

The rock shelters of Bhimbetka present life of prehistoric man in vivid colour.

Just 45 km south of Bhopal on the Nagpur highway, Bhimbetka has the largest

collection of Mesolithic art on sandstone in the country, with over 600 rock

shelters in 500 caves spread on 60 hillocks. It was declared a World Heritage

site two years ago.

The paintings have retained their glory despite their age because natural

colours—made of minerals, vegetable dyes, roots and animal fat—were used. The

Zoo Rock depicts elephants, sambars, bisons and deer taking flight; another

shows naked hunters with bows, arrows, swords and shields. Paintings, obviously

of a later age, have men clothed and riding horses and elephants.

Archaeologist V.S. Wakankar of Ujjain discovered Bhimbetka in 1958, quite by

accident. Wakankar, known as the Pitamaha (father) of the Rock Art School in

India, had been associated with rock art in India and in the UK, Austria,

France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Greece, Mexico, Egypt and the US. He was

travelling by train from Bhopal to Nagpur when he saw some rock formations,

similar to the ones he had seen in Spain and France where cave paintings had

been found, near Bhimbetka. At that time of the year, the vegetation was sparse

and the rock formations were quite visible. He decided to visit the area along

with a team of archaeologists and was surprised to come across the prehistoric

rock shelters.

Bhimbetka derives its name from Bhim of the epic Mahabharat. It is said that the

Pandavas spent one year in exile in this region and the Shiva temple at Bhojpur

is said to have been where Bhim worshipped Lord Shiva.

Most of the rock shelters have recently been covered by iron railings for

protection. From a distance, the entrance to the shelter looks like a worn-out

fort, but let that not deter an interested historian.

BHIMBETKA CAVESSituated: 46km south of Bhopal, by the northern fringe of the Vindhyan ranges

Historic significance: Is home to over 600 rock shelters belonging to the

Neolithic age. There are paintings in about 500 caves that depict the life of

the prehistoric cave-dwellers. Executed mainly in red and white with the

occasional use of green and yellow, the themes are usually taken from hunting,

dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animals fighting, honey collection,

decoration of bodies, disguises, masking and household scenes. Popular

religious and ritual symbols and animals can also be seen.

Brick and scriptHarappan period: Like the Spartans, they ossified into non-existence

By R. Prasannan

Till recently, the cities remained like a nowhere land—seeming to have appeared

out of the blue, and like a gypsy camp, vanished into the blue. Strange as it

may seem, dozens of theories abound about the destruction of the Harappan

cities. Pioneering excavators like Sir Mortimer Wheeler theorised that they

were Dravidians and were destroyed by the rampaging Aryans, as described in the

Vedic adventure stories of Indra the Purandara (fort-breaker). Since the cities

looked like exclusivist forts, and since signs of quick destruction (like dead

bodies with wound marks) were found in certain cities, this theory gained

currency. But even Wheeler, who propounded the Aryan invasion theory, is said

to have had second thoughts, especially after it was found that some of the

wounds found on the dead bodies had healed long before the victim died.

Theories have also been centred on great tectonic changes that forced the

life-sustaining rivers of Sarasvati and Indus to change their course. Evidence

of earthquake destruction has been found in some sites, but then there has also

been evidence of post-quake reinforcement of the same sites. In other words,

earthquakes could not have forced them to abandon their cities, rather the

Harappans reinforced their walls after any earthquake.

Today, most archaeologists believe that they did not just vanish into the blue.

Rather, they declined slowly with the gradual drying of the river basins they

flourished on. As they moved further and further from the Indus-Sarasvati basin

towards central India, they declined in prosperity. In fact, cheap imitations of

their own artistic pottery have been traced in other later settlements,

especially in central India.

So the decline of the Harappan civilisation is no longer a mystery. But the rise

of the civilisation is. Of late, archaeologists have unearthed pre-Harappan

settlements in sites like Kalibangan, but till more evidence is unearthed, the

rise of the civilisation would have to remain an enigma.

The biggest mystery about the Harappans is not their cities or drainages, but

their script. There have been as many interpretations of the script as there

have been epigraphists in India and abroad, but none could conclusively read

the script, as they did with the Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone.

And the biggest wonder about the Harappan cities is, simply put, their brick. It

had a standard size, be it in Mohenjodaro or Harappa, Kalibangan or Lothal. If

at all the size varied in some sites, it still retained the same

length-breadth-height proportion everywhere! Some archaeologists have ventured

further. They say that even the constructions—the houses and the cities—were

built in the same proportion as the brick. In other words, the brick was just

like the platinum rod kept in Paris to define the world standard of metre.

The amazing level of standardisation, seen throughout the mature Harappan

period, raises the question: Was there some sort of a central authority that

dictated the standards? Nothing is known about the political culture of the

Harappans, except conjectures around the famous terracota image of the

‘priest-king’, clad in a triangular robe.

The fact is that throughout history, such standardisations have been centrally

ordered, and enforced. Recent history of city-building, gives such evidence,

especially from Russia. Peter the Great, when he built St. Petersburg ordered

that no building shall be taller than the width of the road on which it stood.

Similarly, buildings in Stalinist era, mostly made of pre-fabricated walls, had

the same length, breadth and look throughout the old Soviet Union.

The later analogies leads us to a supposition that the Harappans too could have

been ruled by an iron hand (an anachronism, since iron had not been discovered)

that set not only brick standards, but also how to build cities. Every city had

the same layout that conformed to a yet-to-be-discovered centralised pattern.

If that be so, it also leads us to some clue to the decline. Everything about

this civilisation shows a kind of exclusivism, or even an unwillingness to

change with the times. Indeed, they did improve on their technology (they

invented bone-concrete bricks when it was found that old pure mud bricks were

fragile in earthquakes), but were unwilling to adapt to changed circumstances.

Even after they declined and moved into central Indian habitations, they

produced cheap imitations of their once-great pottery. In other words, like the

Spartans of Greece, they ossified into non-existence.

KUNALSituated: On the banks of the mythical Sarasvati in Fatehbad, Haryana

Historic significance: Is an archaelogical village compared to the other

Harappan ‘towns’ like Mohenjodaro. The artefacts unearthed suggest a Vedic

culture. They include seals and terracotta cakes. There are triangle-shaped

terracotta cakes that symbolise fertility in the Rig Veda. A painting with a

horse and pipal motif found here are both associated with the Vedic

civilisation. Kunal has three phases of the pre-Harappan culture. In the

earliest, people lived in pits. In the second, moulded mud bricks were used. In

the third , bricks were used to make square and rectangular houses.

Cradle of civilisation

By Anosh Malekar

It was not only in Mesopotamia and in the Nile valley that humans made the

transition from hunting to a herding life, in the centuries between 6000 BC and

3000 BC.

India saw the development of a huge number of urban settlements. And Dholavira,

in the Khadir island of today’s water-starved Kutch region, appears to have

been one of the oldest and biggest, dating back to before 3000 B.C.

Of all the Indus valley sites, Dholavira—locally known as Kotada—stands apart

for its remarkable planning and enormity of area. Spread across 100 hectares,

the site represents a Harappan city par excellence—one of the two largest

settlements in India.

About 450km by road from Ahmedabad, Khadir is one of the larger bets (islands)

in the Greater Rann of Kutch. On reaching the taluka headquarters at Rapar, the

drive leads northwest to a lonesome causeway surrounded by salt deposits

shimmering under the early morning sun. The archaeological site looks

indistinguishable from the rest of the island except for the wire boundary and

the familiar ASI board for protected monuments. The locals reveal there is

nothing but stones and wells out there.

Till as late as 1990, when excavations began, the bland, flat-peaked hillock was

covered in scrubs and boulders. Today, there are signs of large-scale

excavations, exposing a brick structure with intricate steps, pathways,

terraces and broken walls.

It is not always as deserted as during a typically hot summer. Between December

and March, hired workers led by a leader of the ASI excavations, Dr R.S. Bisht,

explain the uncovered details to interested tourists.

Dholavira must have been a huge and thriving city some 50 centuries ago where

textiles, jewellery and pottery were made. It was well-fortified against

passing nomads. The fortress wall runs all the way round the 48-hectare city.

The embattled ‘middle town’ measures about 350m east-west and 200m north-south

and rises 8.6m from the ground. A concentric wall separates the lower town,

which could have been the industrial area, from the main residential area.

The built-up area of the lower town occupies nearly two-thirds of the eastern

half of the city, attaining a height of about 7.5m. Within this was a third

wall which protected the acropolis and the palace.

Beyond, are other structures which have not been fully excavated as yet. Part of

this is the cemetery and the variety of funerary structures which leads you to

two conclusions. One, the ancient Dholavirans believed in after-life. Two, the

citizens of this great city belonged to a number of ethnic groups, each with

distinctive customs.

The trading civilisation must have attracted people from across the seas. You

can imagine Dholavira, a pink-and-white city with its walls, roads, floors and

possibly even the roofs of dwellings glinting with baked colours, attracting

ships from the northwest and the northeast. And when these foreigners moored at

the wharfs, they must have met merchants, traders and travellers dressed in

distinctive costumes, speaking different languages, all assessing the citadel’s

wealth and weaknesses.

Oldest sign-board: A board with signs in the Harappan script

One of the greatest attractions must have been the huge reservoirs between the

city walls that held an amazing 2.5 lakh cubic metres of water—a fantastic

achievement in an area known for its aridity today. There are so many of these

great reservoirs that it looks like a complex of artificial lakes.

The main source of water was the swift-moving, rain-fed streams on which check

dam were built. Water was also diverted from the rooftops into an intricate

system of drains with vents, which allowed air to escape without impeding the

flow. Dholavira can be ranked as a truly remarkable city on the basis of its

water-harvesting systems alone.

But there was much more. Dholavirans were skilled in working with copper, stone,

beads, shells and ceramics. And it was not all work and no play. There was an

enormous recreational ground in the heart of the town, with stepped tiers

indicating a public amphitheatre. There was much more to see and speculate

upon. But the unique inscription of ten large-sized signs of the Harappan

script was fully covered in tin sheets to avoid further damage. The consolation

was in the form of a reproduction of the world’s oldest signboard with 10 large

"letters" in their undecipherable script, on the walls of the ASI office.

The present generation of Dholavirans, who live in the modern-day village of

5,000 residents, have no insights to offer. They are too busy drawing water at

noon, not from the Narmada pipelines, but from one of the wells of Harappan

enterprises recharged and put to use by the ASI recently. The water, sweet as

ever, was perhaps a signal of Dholavira’s refusal to remain in long hibernation

amidst the salt-infested Rann of Kutch.

DHOLAVIRASituated: In The Khadir island of Kutch, Gujarat

Historic Significance: Locally known as Kotada, it is one of the two largest

settlements in India and the fifth largest in the subcontinent, the others

being Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Gharo Bhiro (all in Pakistan) and Rakhigarthi (in

India). Ten large-sized inscribed signs of the Harappan script were found here,

making it the oldest sign-board in the world. Dholavira measures about 600m on

the north-south axis and 775m on the east-west. There are three distinct

complexes—an acropolis, a middle town and a lower town. The acropolis is the

most imposing complex in the city. The towering ‘castle’ stands at a height of

more than 16m.

KALIBANGANSituated: 205km from Bikaner, Rajasthan

Historic significance: Is a 5,000-year-old pre-historic Harappan site.

Architecture and design of the city are similar to those of Mohenjodaro, with

streets that intersect at right angles, drainage system, houses made of baked

bricks and bathrooms that had water pipes and taps. Subsequent excavations have

unearthed relics of an even more ancient culture, dubbed as pre-Harappan.

 

Once upon a dock...

By Anosh Malekar

Adockyard, 84km in southwest India amid the arid plains of Dholka, must be hard

to imagine. More surprising is the fact that the nearest shoreline, the Gulf of

Khambhat, lies just 23km away. And here is a dock—a 218x37x5 cubic metre

kiln-fired brick structure—that was used to serve 30 ships of 60 tonne capacity

each.

Remnants of the Harappan/Indus valley civilisation at Lothal, near Dholka, were

discovered rather late, after Independence. Lothal means mound of the dead in

Gujarati. It is hard to associate death with this ancient mound which has

withstood the vagaries of nature and human neglect to tell its own tale. The

earliest boats and ships came into use some 25,000 years ago. There were ships

on the Red Sea long before the pyramids were built and people were freely

trading by 4000 BC.

Maritime trade flourished here between 2400 BC and 1900 BC. It is believed that

the Harappans came down from the Sindh valley to the southern sea coast around

2400 BC. in search of fertile land and potential ports. They developed Lothal

as their most important port and consequently, as a great city similar to

Mohenjodaro.

In the early days, the ancient dock was not very far from the sea shore, as it

appears today, and was navigable through the Bhogavo river. Its proximity to

the sea, the river and the hazards of floods prompted the Harappan builders of

Lothal to create a boundary wall outside the town and to build dwellings on a

high platform of sun-dried bricks.

It was from the acropolis (known so because of its importance as a seat of

power), that the block supervisors observed the movement of ships in the dock

and hauling of cargo in the wharf. What one sees today from atop the acropolis

is a planned city with an intricate underground drainage system, wells, and

houses with attached baths. Divided into two parts, the lower town with

well-paved streets, comprising a bazaar and residential areas, and a warehouse

on a plinth, can be seen.

The huge dock to the east, said to be superior to those of Phoenicians and

Romans, is a treat to the eye. An inland dockyard made of bricks with a spill

channel and a 7m-wide inlet channel was connected to the Bhogavo river which

flows into the Arabian Sea. It has been excavated and restored by the ASI and

is intact now.

Bead-making was the most important industry here. This is evident from the rings

and bangles in the museum. Lothal also specialised in steatite micro beads which

were used to make necklaces, amulets and waistbands. Also on display at the

museum are shell and terracotta ornaments from that time. Seals played an

important part in the Harappan economy and more than 200 have survived in

Lothal, many of which are masterpieces of craftsmanship, getting pride of place

in the museum.

The oft-portrayed animals are the mythical unicorn, elephant, mountain goat,

tiger and the mythical elephant bull. The Harappans of Lothal worshipped the

fire god and the sea god, but worship of the goddess was not given importance.

The relics—a mummy, an Assyrian’s head, a seal with five ships sketched on it

and seals of the Arabian and Sumerian cities and muslin and indigo found in the

Egyptian pyramids—suggest that Lothal had overseas trade relations with Abbas,

Bushayar, Bahrain, Susa and Sumer. It is said the ancient sea-farers of Lothal

are the ancestors of the Bania community and they have bequeathed the legacy of

sea-faring to the people of Gujarat.

The civilisation at Lothal survived till 1500 BC, though it vanished from the

north in 1600 BC. Today, it harbours 20m deep debris. It measures 284m

north-south and 228m east-west. The remains suggest that it must have extended

300m away from the mound. The excavation site consists of the mound, disrobed

for display, and a museum with the archaeological finds. The museum is open

only between 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. from Saturday to Thursday. The excavations

stopped long ago and there are no archaeologists around. Despite the hot

weather, one can enjoy the experience. However, do not expect any enthusiasm in

modern Gujarat on this chapter of Indian history.

LOTHAL SITE AND DOCKSituated: On the banks of the Sarasvati’s banks, 85 km from Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Historic significance: Is a 4,500-year-old well-laid city divided into two

parts: the upper part or the acropolis where the rulers of the city lived and

the lower part meant for the commoners. It had a scientific drainage system,

paved roads and a bath for every house. Some of them were double storied.

Lothal’s dockyard was architecturally advanced, with berthing facility and a

13m-wide channel to facilitate entry of ships. It was also an active business

centre, linked with Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. Beads and pottery were the

chief exports. The ruins of a fire altar suggest that the Lothal people

worshipped the fire and the sea gods.

Faith, science and stupasBuddhist period: Pax-Mauryana helped cultureflourish

By R. Prasannan

The three-horned ‘lord of the beasts’ sealing from the Harappan period has been

variously interpreted as a proto-Siva (Pasupati) or as a proto-Buddha in

meditation. The problem with the latter interpretaion is that this period

definitely pre-dates the Buddha. Since no other evidence is available about

this, we date our Budhist period purely along archaeological lines. By all

historical evidence, Siddhartha Buddha (there could have been many Buddhas

earlier, going by Buddhist tradition) was born in 544 BC in Lumbini, the

republican village of Kapilavastu on the present India-Nepal border.

Mediaeval splendour: The Ellora Caves, carved under royal patronage, represent

the faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism (above left)

Apparently, the city-states of the Himalayan region were still following the

republican order, when great political changes were taking place in the plains

of the Indus, deserted by the Harappans a thousand years earlier. In 520 BC,

that is when Siddhartha was 14 years old, Persian emperor Darius crossed the

Indus, thus subjecting India to an imperial quest for the first time. Even on

the Gangetic plain farther east, kingdoms had replaced village republics in

Magadha, Kosala and other places. The xenophobia shown by the Sakya chiefs, who

are said to have kept Siddhartha a prisoner in the gilded cage of the palace,

could be interpreted as their last attempt to protect themselves from the

‘polluting’ influence of the plains kingdoms.

So the Buddhist period saw not only the rise of kingdoms, but also the

incredibly rapid rise of empires. Within a century of the Buddha’s death,

Alexander, ancient world’s greatest empire-builder, had invaded India.

Alexander’s triumphal march could have left imperial ambitions burning in the

hearts of Indian kings too, as made out in the probably-fictitious story of

Chandragupta Maurya having learnt a few battle tactics from Alexander.

Chandragupta’s grandson Asoka used the Buddhist tenet of non-violence to

consolidate his empire, just like Akbar used Hindu-Muslim amity to neutralise

rebellious tendencies in provinces. The non-violent empire became the basis of

the state structure, with violence resorted to only to defend itself from

external aggressors.

Pax-Mauryana also helped culture flourish. Great stupas were built in this

period, as were numerous viharas, caityas and pagodas. There was a lot of

cultural expansionism as well as intake. If Buddhist ideals were propagated to

the far east, a lot was taken also from the Greeks and later the Scythians and

others ruling over Bactria and beyond. The sculpture and architecture of the

period show a lot of Greek influence, just as the sculptures of the Greek

Gandhara region show Indian influence.

Even after the fall of the Mauryas, Magadhan dominance continued under the

Sungas. Interestingly, the first recorded military coup took place in this

period. Pushyamitra Sunga, commander-in-chief of the Magadhan army, killed his

emperor Brihadratha and took power in 184 BC. Two centuries later in the

northwest, Kanishka, the Kushana ruler, was suffocated to death under a quilt

at the instance of his minister Mathara, who gave the throne to Huvishka.

The cultural interactions weren’t all that peaceful either. Antiochus the Great

of Syria invaded northwestern India in 206 BC, the Greek Menander overpowered

the same region in 180 BC. Within the subcontinent, the Kalingas, once

suppressed and pacified by Asoka, rose again under the illustrious Kharavela.

The Rashtrakutas asserted in the south.

Signs of a revival were seen soon after the decline of the Mauryas. The defeat

of the Scythians by a fabled Vikaramaditya must have marked the beginning of

the decline of Buddhism as the state religion. During the Gupta age, both the

faith and Buddhism flourished side by side. The Guptas also attempted at

imperial consolidation, what with Samudragrupta’s arms crossing far deep into

the Deccan. The fall of the Guptas opened the doors of India again to invaders.

The white Hun menace, under Toramana, appeared around 465 AD.

Technologically, the Gupta period marks the greatest achievements in metallurgy,

as evidenced from the Gupta iron pillars still standing without rust. The Gupta

and post-Gupta period was also the golden age of science, mathematics and

astronomy in India. Varahamihira, Bhaskara-I, and Brahmagupta flourished in

this age.

By the time of Harsha, Hinduism had also been reviving. Apparently its

coexistence with Buddhism till then, was beginning to crack. A sort of rigidity

had set in the souls of both.

 

AJANTA/ELLORASituated: In the Sahyadri Hills, near Aurangabad in Maharashtra

Historic significance: Is a site of temples carved within caves of the Deccan in

the 7th and the 11th centuries AD. The sculptures in Ajanta, carved in solid

rock, depict the story of the Buddha and Buddhism, spanning 200 BC to 650 AD.

Carved under royal patronage in the mediaeval period, the Ellora caves

represent the three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The 12 caves

towards the south are Buddhist, 17 in the centre are Hindu structures and five

caves to the north are Jain. The huge free-standing Kailasa Temple was carved

out of a single rock.

 

RATNAGIRITantric BuddhismBy Tathagata Bhattacharya

The Ratnagiri monastery’s isolation on a hilltop is striking. Built in 5 A.D.,

Ratnagiri is part of the ancient Buddhist quadrangle in Orissa’s Jajpur

district. Of the other three, the monasteries in Udayagiri and Lalitgiri were

built in 6 A.D. and the one in Langudi dates to 3 B.C.

The discovery of exquisite stone sculptures and brass statues of Buddhist

deities like Tara indicate that the monastery was a centre of tantric Buddhism

housing about 500 monks. Its decline began in 16 A.D. as funds and royal

patronage gradually ceased.

Ratnagiri’s stupas, two quadrangular monasteries, a courtyard, cells and

verandah with a sanctum that enshrines a colossal Buddha are impressive. So is

the temple with a curvilinear tower, the only one of its kind in Orissa.

But what is more awe-inspiring about its architecture is perhaps the monastery’s

drainage system which drains out rainwater from the complex even today.

Lalitgiri was a seat of Buddhist learning till 16 A.D. Today ruins of the

monastery complex seem like an amphitheatre with a giant Chaitya in the centre

surrounded by small stupas carved with figures of the Buddha (photo on top).

Pilgrim’s progress

By Shubham Shukla

Feng Shui may be Chinese but one of its symbols believed to usher in prosperity

has Indian roots. At least that is what Chandrama Giri, a tourist guide in

Sanchi, claims, pointing to the pot-bellied dwarfs carved in a gateway to the

stupas. "These dwarfs are also known as the Laughing Buddhas and the concept

was propagated from Sanchi," he says.

Giri’s theory may be debatable, but experts have established that Sanchi was a

prominent Buddhist centre during emperor Asoka’s times. His son and daughter

are believed to have stayed here before going to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism.

But there is more to Sanchi than the Laughing Buddhas. The Archaeological

Survey of India has discovered ancient grinders and chulhas (hearths) in

Sanchi. A world heritage site, Sanchi is home to some of the finest examples of

Buddhist architecture as seen in the stupas, the monolithic pillars and

monasteries.

The history of Sanchi dates to 5 BC. After the Buddha’s death, eight kings, who

were also his followers, laid claim to his ashes and bones. When a war seemed

inevitable, sage Drona is believed to have intervened. The remains were divided

into eight parts and each ruler erected a stupa.

In 3 BC, Asoka reopened these stupas and divided the relics into 84,000 parts

and got numerous stupas built all over the country. Later, in 2 BC and 1 BC the

Sungas and the Satavahanas got more stupas and gateways built in Sanchi. Local

people believe that it was Aurangzeb’s attack in 12 AD that led to the downfall

of the centre.

Nevertheless, the beauty of the stupas is intact. Stupa number one consists of

the relics of the Buddha and has four gateways beautifully carved by the

‘Vidisha danta karya karigar’ (craftspersons of Vidisha, which is around 10km

from Sanchi). Some stones bear names of the donors, pointing to the involvement

of citzens in the building of the structure.

The famed Asoka pillar is near the southern gateway; Sanchi, a book by the

Archaeological Survey of India, says that a local zamindar had used a part of

the pillar as a sugar cane crusher. In Sanchi, one can also find the remains of

monasteries. Though there is nothing in the texts to show that Buddha visited

Sanchi and there is no mention of this Buddhist sanctuary in Chinese traveller

Huen Tsang’s records, monks believe that the Buddha walked from Bodhgaya to

Sanchi.

That perhaps explains the flow of Buddhist pilgrims to Sanchi from all over the

world, including Sri Lanka. Most of them stay at the Maha Bodhi Society and

meditate in the morning and evening near the Buddha’s remains. Devotees tie

flags around a tree near the stupa in the belief that their wishes would be

granted.

The monuments also depict the tenets of Buddhism. For instance, the subject of

the carvings on one gateway is the Buddha’s emphasis on spiritualism rather

than on rituals. Another gateway depicts incidents from all the lives of the

Buddha. The Laughing Buddhas on another gateway smile invitingly. Follow the

path for what lay ahead is innocent joy, they seem to say.

SANCHISituated: 55km from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Historic significance: Was an ancient seat of Buddhist learning and place of

pilgrimage where emperor Asoka erected the Great Stupa and the Asoka Pillar in

the middle of the 3rd century BC. The stupa, the oldest Buddhist monument in

the world, represents Buddha through symbols—the lotus represents his birth,

the tree his enlightenment, the wheel his first sermon and the stupa his

nirvana. The Asoka Pillar, with its four lion-head stumps, is situated close to

the southern gateway of the stupa. Though similar to the intricately carved

pillar in Sarnath, the lions do not support a ‘Wheel of Law’ (Dharmachakra). A

unique feature of this pillar is its brilliant polish. The Gupta Temple (4th

century AD), is one of the earliest known examples of temple architecture in

India. It consists of a simple flat-roofed chamber with a pillared porch in

front.

Where scholars gathered

By Tapash Ganguly

It is hard to believe that Bihar, which is synonymous with corruption and the

breakdown of the system, was once the site of great learning. The ruins of the

Nalanda Mahavihar, said to be the first residential international university in

the world, are 100km south east from the capital Patna and 10km from Rajgir, the

capital of the Magadhan empire of Asoka.

A walk among the ruins of the university, which consists of 6 brick temples and

11 monasteries spread over 1sq. km, transports one back to an era when India

was a place of scholarship. The courses at Nalanda included Buddhist scriptures

(both Mahayana and Hinayana schools), the Vedas, hetu vidya (logic), shabda

vidya (grammar) and chikitsa vidya (medicine).

An era when India was a place of scholarship: Visitors walk among the ruins of Nalanda

According to Pali scriptures, the Buddha often visited Nalanda, which was a

prosperous region in the 5th century BC. On his way from Rajagaha (Rajgir) to

Pataliputra (Patna), he would stop at his disciple Pavarika’s mango grove here.

Nalanda is also believed to be the birthplace of Buddha’s chief disciple

Sariputra. It is said that Mauryan emperor Asoka erected a stupa in memory of

Sariputra and built a temple here.

Mahavira, the great Jain tirthankar (teacher), also visited Nalanda. Nagarjuna,

the famous 2nd century Mahayana philosopher, studied at Nalanda and later

became its high priest. Other teachers, Suvishnu, Aryadeva, Asanga and

Vasubandhu, also rose to fame in the 5th century. It was under the patronage of

Gupta rulers that Nalanda flourished as a university centre.

It housed 10,000 students—from as far as Java and China—and 2,000 teachers.

Candidates had to take a rigorous oral entrance test at the gates. But

education was free. According to Chinese traveller Huen Tsang who visited India

in the 7th century and studied at Nalanda, the university received the patronage

of the great emperor Harshavardhana of Kannauj. Subsequently, the Pala kings who

ruled over eastern India for about four centuries were benefactors till the 12th

century, when Afghan invaders burnt down the university.

Excavations by the ASI, which has made a proposal to the Unesco to include

Nalanda in the World Heritage list, from 1915-37 and 1974-82 exposed the

remains of the brick temples on the west and monasteries on the east of a

100-ft wide road. The monasteries are almost identical in layout and

appearance, with rows of rooms around a common verandah, a secret chamber for

keeping valuables, a kitchen, a well and a granary. The rooms, according to

historians, were once the hostel complex for teachers and students. It has

stone slabs, which were used as beds, and recesses in the wall to keep books or

night lamps.

The large, imposing main temple, at the southern end of the row of temples, is

surrounded by votive stupas. It has four corner towers with niches which hold

beautiful stucco images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattas, the state before the

Buddha attained enlightenment.

The excavation has unearthed many sculptures in stone, bronze and stucco.

Significant are the sculptures of the Buddha in different

postures—avalokiteswara, manjusri, tara, prajnaparamita, marichi, jambhala—and

the images of Brahminical deities like Vishnu, Siva-Parvati, Mahisasur-Mardini,

Ganesa and Surya. Other noteworthy discoveries include murals, copper plates

from the rule of Samudragupta (350-375 AD) , inscriptions, seals, plaques and

coins from Kumaragupta’s reign (413-455 AD).

NALANDASituated: 99km from Patna, Bihar

Historic significance: Was one of the most renowned Buddhist universities in

India. Established in the 5th century BC, it remained a centre of learning till

the 12th century AD when it was destroyed by the Muslim invader Bakhtiar Khilji.

The university had students from China, Korea, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and all the

regions of India, who were taught logic, metaphysics, medicine, prose

composition and rhetoric. It also offered free educational and residential

facilities to as many as 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. Its library, Ratna

Sagar, is believed to have contained nine million volumes. The Thai Temple and

the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, a centre for research in Pali and Buddhist

studies, are 2km from the main site.

 

A time of great templesThe Hindu period: In south India this began in the seventh century

By R. Prasannan

Socially, the Hindu revival was primarily propelled from the south. In the

eighth century there was a new-found assertiveness on the part of the Vedic

faiths, by now consolidated by Sankara, who had flourished in an age of

political uncertainty. With his great organisational skill, he consolidated the

warring Vedic faiths into some sort of a monolith. Buddhism was more or less

philosophically demolished, and a new faith, which had landed on the shores of

Sind under Mohammed bin Qasim some 60 years before Sankara’s birth, had to be

confronted. Jainism too had a quiet revival during this period.

Though there were no overwhelming empires during the so-called Hindu period,

there were quite a few illustrious dynasties ruling over various parts of India

in the post-Harsha years. The Gohillas carved out a kingdom in Mewar, Kashmir’s

Lalitaditya Muktipada defeated Yashovarman of Kannauj, Vanaraja of Deo founded

a kingdom in Gujarat, the Palas came to fore in Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas

captured Kannauj, the Rashtrakutas reached out to the north, and the Chandelas

flourished in central India.

Architecturally, this was the busiest period. If Buddhist art confined itself to

cave temples, paintings and sculptures, the Hindu period saw the rise of the

great temples. Most of the great temples that we see today in India were built

during this period which lasted till the Ghazni-Ghori invasions in the north

and the much-later fall of the Vijayanagar empire in the south.

There was also a tendency—which some historians call neo-Vikramadityanism—of

harking back to some hoary past. Quite a few kings, on both sides of the

Vindhyas, called themselves Vikramadityas in this age, and some even initiated

their own Vikrama eras leading to today’s confusion about the original Indian

calendar.

Unfortunately, save for the Chola invasion of overseas territories, much of the

Vikramadityan spirit was spent on fighting each other. Within a hundred years

of the death of Harsha, quite a few dynasties arose and fell in the north. But

in the south, there still was some sort of imperial centralism. Though there

were the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Cholas and so on, they largely succeeded

each other, admittedly after much bloodshed, thus ensuring that there was only

one paramount power at any given point of time.

Towards the end of this period in the north, the Arabs had been reaching out to

India. Initially the interactions were peaceful—of two great cultures

exchanging notes—save bin Qasim’s capture of Sind. By now the caliphate had

been at the zenith of its glory, and there is record of a Hindu physician

Manikya being called to the caliph’s court in 809 AD. But by 1000 AD, things

began to change. In the next 26 years, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India 14 times

and shook the foundations of virtually every kingdom north of the Vindhyas.

They were still tottering and falling when Mohammed of Ghori came nearly two

centuries later and delivered the death blows.

In the south, however, there was consolidation mainly under the Cholas. Only

after their decline could the sultanate, under the Khiljis, cross over to the

south and help establish various minor sultanates. Yet Vijayanagar, under the

Tuluva dynasty, survived there in splendid isolation till the battle of

Talikota in 1565. Strangely, the Bhakti movement also had its origins in this

period after Advaita, and flourished while Islam was overrunning the north.

The architectural difference in time-scale has been well explained by J.C. Harle

in The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent: "The known artistic

history of South India, with very few exceptions, does not begin until the

seventh century, whereas by this time in the north there were monuments nearly

a thousand years old, and the greatest heights of achievement has perhaps

already been scaled."

KHAJURAHOSituated: In MP, 620 km from Delhi

Historic significance: Houses temples from 9th to 13th centuries, built in the

Indo-Aryan Nagara style with erotica as the dominating theme. It was once the

religious capital of the Chandela Rajputs, a Hindu dynasty that ruled between

10th and 12th centuries. The temples were built over a span of a 100 years and

enclosed by a wall with eight gates, each flanked by two golden palm trees.

There were originally over 80 Hindu temples, of which only 22 stand. They are

divided into three groups: the western group dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu; the

northern group has Vaishnava temples and the southeastern group consists of Jain

temples. The oldest of these temples, dating to 900 AD is the Chaunsat Yogini

Temple in the western group, located southwest of the Shibsagar lake. To the

north of this is the Kandariya Mahadeo temple, the largest in Khajuraho. It is

considered to be the best representation of the Khajuraho style of Indo-Aryan

temples. Its sanctum enshrines a marble

Shivalingam.

K0NARKTo the glory of the sun

By Tathagatha Bhattacharya

If you thought big and beautiful did not go together, the Sun Temple in Konark

will prove an eye-opener. Built in 1250 AD by King Narasimhadeva I of the Ganga

dynasty, in Orissa’s port town of Kainapara of the Periplus, it took 1,200

architects, blacksmiths, sculptors, builders and artisans 12 years to complete.

The temple, dedicated to the sun god, was built to resemble a giant chariot with

24 wheels pulled by seven horses. Konark is an expression of happiness and all

the figurines are smiling. A curious element is the figure of a giraffe.

According to folklore, Narasimhadeva and his queen brought back a giraffe that

was gifted to them on a visit to an African country.

What sets the Konark sun temple apart is its scientific and geometrical

precision. The name Konark is derived from kon meaning angle and arka meaning

sun. The natmandir (dancing hall)—one of the few surviving structures—has three

doors by which the first rays of the sun would enter the main temple and hit the

feet of the god enshrined inside. The wheels of the chariot are a sundial. Each

wheel has eight hands denoting the division of a day into eight hours. There

are small hands for each half-hour and points to denote minutes.

Apart from the natmandir, the jagmohan (assembly hall) remains. Of the main

temple, which was 227 ft tall, only a small part remains. According to one

legend, the main temple had a powerful magnet on its top that used to disrupt

British ship movements, so the British used cannon fire to tear down the

temple. Another version suggests that Kalapahar, the 16th century Afghan

invader, destroyed it.

To the north of the giant chariot, there is a smaller temple dedicated to

Sandhya and Chaya, the wives of the sun god.

Towering majesty

By D.I. Ravindran

It is believed that the shadow of the majestic Brihadeswara temple in Thanjavur

never falls down. Originally known as Rajarajeshwaram Udaya Paramasamy, it is

widely believed that a visit to the temple by a person in power would spell

doom. it may be for that reason that Tamil Nadu Chief Minister J. Jayalalithaa

has never visited this temple, despite being an ardent devotee.

But the temple—or the big temple, as it is commonly referred to—has more to it

than the so-called jinx. Built by Raja Raja Chola, this 11th century temple

that occupies a large portion of Sivganga fort, has been endorsed as a living

monument by the Archeological Survey of India, which has also taken over

control of the temple.

The temple occupies an area measuring 800 inches by 400 inches and the total

area of the inner courtyard, which is surrounded by a cloister, is 500 inches

by 250 inches. Paintings belonging to three dynasties—Cholas (11th century),

Nayaks (16th and 17th centuries) and Marathas (18th century)—contribute to the

artistic dimension of the temple.

As one enters, there are two gopurams. The first one is called Keralanthagan

Thiruvayil, marking the victory of Raja Raja Chola over Kerala when it was

ruled by Bhaskara Ravivarma while the second is the Rajarajeswara Thiruvayil.

The former is a square, massive five-tiered structure. There are two

sub-shrines in the first floor with the sannidhis of Dakshinamurthy and Brahma

with a beard, which is unique. Rajaraja Thiruvayil (the gate of Raja Raja), the

second gateway, is a three-tiered granite structure. In the raised upapeeta,

there are beautifully sculptured scenes from mythology. In the eastern face of

the gopuram, above these Puranic panels, are two monolith dwarapalas, measuring

20 feet.

An 11-foot wide inner wall encases the sanctum that enshrines the presiding

deity—a massive 13-foot high Shivalinga. The lower half of the shreepada is

made of nine pieces of lotus carvings while the upper half is decorated with

the urdhwa padma, a 60-foot circle six feet in length in single stone on which

linga bana (the top portion of linga) stands. The entrance of the sanctum is

guarded by the massive Nandi (the sacred bull) and Mahakala.

There are 10 ayudha purushas (armed warriors) in the southern and northern

entrances of the vestibule (mukha mandapa) but only five of them are in good

condition. The gigantic Nandi—3.66m in height, 5.94m in length and 2.59m in

breadth—is built within a plain 16-pillared mandapam.

The Brihadeeswari shrine, located opposite to the Nandi mandapa is a later

addition by a Pandya king in the 13th century. Vijaya Nagara Perumal, a Nayak

king during the 15th century, built a large entrance to this shrine. The inner

ceiling of the shrine is adorned with the Maratha paintings of Serfoji period.

The mandapam and the Bull were contributed by the Nayaks in the 16th-17th

centuries.

Renovations have been in progress since the beginning of the 20th century. The

latest addition before the archaeology department took over was the Karuvurar

shrine. Karuvurtthevar, who wrote Thiruvisaippa (sacred musical verses) during

Raja Raja Chola’s reign, was believed to have persuaded the emperor to build

this great temple.

Varahi Amman, the deity of this temple, attracts a large crowd. People believe

that the deity protects them from evil. Though the shrine is small, the deity

occupies a large part of the sanctum. The two other places that house this

deity are in Kasi and Arakkonam in Chennai. Standing tall against the ravages

of time, this temple is an enduring monument which is testimony to the

greatness of Tamil rulers.

BRIHADESHWARA TEMPLESituated: In Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

Historic significance: Is the world’s first granite temple built by Chola king

Raja Raja in honour of Lord Shiva in 1009 AD. The Brihadeshwara Temple is

composed of many interconnected structures such as the 12 ft-tall, 25-tonne

Nandi (the mount of Shiva), a pillared portico and a large hall. The inner

walls of the temple have extensive paintings and sculpture. Its top or the

shikhara is a single block of stone, 25 ft high and weighing 80 tonnes. The

structural idea of constructing a Gopuram (or a fine gateway to the enclosed

walls of the temple) was first conceived by the Chola kings. The temple stands

216 ft tall, but it has been built in such a manner that throughout the day its

shadow never falls on the ground.

BISHNUPURSituated: In Bankura district of West Bengal

Historic significance: Was the capital city of the Mallas (7th - 19th century)

and is a repository of terracotta temples. The oldest brick temple is a

Rasmancha with an elongated pyramidal tower surrounded by hut-shaped turrets,

built in the late 16th century by King Beera Hambira. Terracotta gained further

momentum under King Raghunath Singh, who built the Pancha Ratna Temple of Shyam

Rai and the Jorebangla Temple of Keshta Rai. The temple of Madanmohana in the

Sankharipara area was built in the eka ratna style by King Durjana Singh Dev in

1694 AD. It is a square flat-roofed building with curved cornices, surmounted by

a pinnacle. Its rich decorations and designs surpass the Shyam Rai and Keshta

Rai temples. Here, for the first time, there are bigger terracotta plaques than

those in the other two temples. Impressive scenes from the Ramayana, the

Mahabharata and the Puranas are carved on the temple walls.

Stony silences

By N. Bhanutej

Legend has it that the monkey kings of yore—in the kingdom of Kishkindha—used

these boulders to play marbles. In the middle ages, these magnificent rocks

provided the perfect setting for establishing the capital of the Vijayanagar

kingdom.

Hampi, one of the greatest metropolises of mediaeval India, was set in the midst

of natural rocks on three sides—some of the most spectacular and oldest rocks in

the Deccan—and the river Tungabhadra, flowing to its north. These rocks acted

like natural walls and the gaps between them were filled to complete the

fortification of the city.

Founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 AD, the Vijayanagar empire was spread over

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Till its fall in the Talikota War of

1565, the writ of the empire prevailed over the southern peninsula. As Robert

Swell wrote in his book, A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar: "When Vijayanagar

sprang into existence, the past was done with forever, and the monarchs of the

new state became lords or overlords of the territories lying between the Dakhan

and Ceylon."

Hampi, the capital of Vijayanagar, in Karnataka’s Bellary district, showcased

the grandeur of the period. Palaces, temples, markets, aquaducts, gateways,

sculptures, baths and pavilions dot the landscape. The first thought in any

visitor’s mind is: If ruins can be so enchanting, imagine the real thing. The

wind in the rocks, the smell of camphor in the Virupaksha temple or the musical

pillars of the Vittala temple—all transport the visitor back in time. Seated on

the Mahanavami Dibba (a royal platform from which the royalty witnessed

festivities), one can reconstruct from the ruins all around. The king’s palace,

the largest enclosure in the capital, comprises two huge platforms (the

structures are missing now) and an underground chamber that might have served

as a treasury or a private audience chamber. The enclosure is surrounded by a

double fortification.

The Virupaksha temple, which pre-dates Vijayanagar, is the only living monument

in Hampi. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple is still used for worship. The

Ratha Beedi (Chariot Street) that leads to the temple retains its splendour.

The street is lined with artisans selling their wares. Abdul Razak, a Persian

ambassador who visited Vijayanagar and the bustling bazaars of Hampi in 1443,

wrote: "Jewellers sell publicly pearls, rubies, emeralds and diamonds."

The Vijay Vittala temple, the Lotus Mahal which is a synthesis of Hindu and

Islamic architecture, the Queen’s Bath—a large square structure with a plain

exterior and ornate interiors, the elephant stables, the recently-unearthed

Pushkarni, which is a tiered structure crafted from rectangular pieces of

granite, Hazara Rama temple, Mahanavami Dibba and the imposing statue of

Ugranarasimha or Lakshmi Narasimha are must-sees in a tourist’s list. The

Vijaya Vittala temple with its musical pillars and the stone chariot (the

wheels of this single-stone sculpture can be rotated) are testimony to the

architectural and artistic skills of the period.

While most of the structures are in ruins, the Lotus Mahal, the Queen’s Bath and

the Pushkarni are well-preserved. "The ruins of Hampi are signs of the hatred

between two people," said Prof S. Chandrashekhar, professor of history,

Bangalore University. "The monuments also show us the kind of civilisation and

culture Indians were able to build then but I am equally awestruck at the place

being monumentally neglected by the authorities."

While the popular view among historians is that Vijayanagar fell in the Talikota

war in 1565 AD to the Bahamanis, some believe that Hampi was reduced to rubble

because of the clash between the Vaishnavite and the Shaivite sects within the

kingdom. This theory, for evidence, holds good as one notices the destruction

of Vaishnava temples and idols as against the well-preserved Shaivite temples

in Hampi. While the Hazara Rama temple, Vijaya Vittala temple, Ugranarasimha

and some others are ravaged, the presiding deity in the Virupaksha temple is

still worshipped. Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest of the Vijayanagar kings, who

descended from the Tuluva lineage, made Vijaya Vittala the presiding deity of

the royal family whereas his predecessors from the Sangama and Salva lineages

had Virupaksha as their presiding deity. Yet another theory indicates that the

marginalised tribesmen plundered Vijayanagar after the news of King Rama Raya’s

defeat in the Talikota war reached the capital. As

Abdul Razak put it: "The eye has not seen nor the ear heard of any place

resembling it upon the whole earth." And, thus ended the glory of Hampi.

HAMPISituated: On the banks of Tungabhadra river, northern Karnataka

Historic significance: Was the seat of the famed Vijayanagar empire from 1336 to

1565—bounded by the Tungabhadra river on one side and surrounded by granite

cliffs on the other three sides. The city is identified with the mythological

Kishkindha, the monkey kingdom in the Ramayana. The city is famous for its

palaces and temples, especially the Virupaksha Temple with its 120 ft tall

tower. The temple contains the shrines of Shiva, Pampa and Bhuvaneswari. Parts

of this temple are older than the Vijayanagar kingdom itself. The work of this

style dates to the 11th or 12th century. The temple also has a 6.7m tall

monolith of Ugra Narasimha, with an inscription that states it was hewn in 1528

during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.

Splendour in stone

By Tariq Bhat

A crucible of cultural traditions and religious practices, Kashmir has earned

the sobriquet, ‘Piriveer and Rishiveer’ (The valley of Pirs and Rishis). While

Hinduism has remained a dominant religion, Lalitaditya Muktapida, an eighth

century ruler of the Surya dynasty, popularised sun god worship. Lalitaditya’s

most memorable and magnificent work was the construction of the wonderful

Martand temple dedicated to the sun god (Bhaskara). The temple’s unmatched

architecture stands testimony to Lalitaditya's passion.

Historian Kalhana has mentioned in his book, Rajatarangni, about sun-god worship

and the existence of an important temple dedicated to it at Mattan. The hamlet

of Mattan, 10 km from the south Kashmir district of Anantnag, has been of great

religious importance to the Hindus. It has been traditionally known as the

‘Surya tirth’, a place of sun pilgrimage.

The temple, however, began to be known as Martand all over the world. The ruins

of the temple in Kehribal village today speak volumes about the glorious past

of the monument built on an elevated plateau.

Local people call the temple Pandav laire (the house of Pandavas). This had

created some confusion for historians and archaeologists. But it has nothing to

do with the Pandavas of Mahabharata. The temple’s history is well documented in

Rajatarangni. Pandav apparently comes from the material used to build the

temple. In Kashmir, especially in Anantnag district, there are huge ruins of

rectangular blocks of stones with polished surfaces, associated with Pandavas.

Similar material is used in the construction of Martand.

Martand remained an active religious place till the end of the 14th century when

according to historians it was destroyed by a fanatic, Suhabhatta, during the

reign of Sikander (1389-1413 AD). Thereafter, it never regained its grandeur.

The main temple is located in a spacious oblong courtyard enclosed by a raised

basement supporting a roofed colonnade with an array of cells behind. Unlike

other extant ancient temples, Martand has two double chambered side wings

flanking the mandapa, a novel and special character of its own.

Villagers are ignorant of the history of the monument. There is no official to

look after it or any guide to inform visitors about the history of the great

place. The floriculture department has laid a big park in front of the

monument. The famous temple is on the verge of collapse.

MARTAND SUN TEMPLESituated: In Kashmir

Historic significance: Signifies a departure from Buddhism and acceptance of the

Brahmanical creed. The regularly spaced medallions, the frequent use of

pilaster, and the pediment motif, signify a touch of the classical west. The

capitals of the pillars that support cornices have something Doric about them,

while their moulded bases are of attic type. The encircling colonnade have a

Greek touch. The mural sculpture on the walls displays the influence of the

Pala rulers of Bengal. The copper gilt image of the sun god installed in the

cellar of the temple must have been wrought in the very same foundry where Pala

metal-workers shaped that famous copper image of the Buddha discovered at

Sultanganj in Bengal.

MAHABALIPURAMSituated: 60 km south of Chennai

Historic significance: Was a 7th century port city of the Pallavas, named after

the demon king Mahabali. It has various monuments built between the 7th and the

9th centuries, most of which are rock-cut and monolithic. They constitute the

early stages of Dravidian architecture where Buddhist elements are prominent.

Recently a major find was made of a large number of underwater ruins, thought

to date back to 6000 BC, older than Harappa. An ancient port city and parts of

a temple built in the 7th century have been uncovered after the December 26

tsunami that struck the coast.

The domes of DelhiSultanate period: Their finest contribution to

monument-building was bringing the dome

By R. Prasannan

The second millennium began for India with a terrestrial tsunami. In 1001,

Mahmud of Ghazni defeated King Jayapala of the Shahi dynasty at Peshawar and

began his first plunder of the "wealth of Ind". Nearly two centuries later, in

1191, Mohammed of Ghori came and was defeated by Prithviraj II. Next year he

came again, defeated Prithviraj and installed his slave Qutbuddin Aibek as

governor of Delhi. Aibek erected the Qutab Minar to mark the beginning of

Islamic rule in India. Delhi became the seat of central power in India under

the Slaves.

The Slaves consolidated under Iltutmish who severed his links with the

caliphate, and consolidated the state of India. Under Iltutmish and Balban, the

sultanate expanded its sway over most of northern India. They kept the Mongols

under Chengiz Khan at bay through diplomacy. Once Mongol power weakened, the

Khiljis defeated them in a series of battles. In fact, the real expansion of

the sultanate took place under the Khiljis. The energetic Alauddin sent his

able commander Malik Kafur across the Vindhyas and even up to the southernmost

tip of India.

The Khiljis declined after the death of Alauddin. Taking advantage of palace

intrigues, the Tughlaq governor of Punjab, Ghazi Malik, captured the throne and

called himself Ghiyasuddin. His son Mohammed bin ended the Kakatiya rule in

Telengana, got his father killed and enthroned himself in Delhi. Mohammed bin’s

misadventures weakened the empire. Bengal revolted and remained independent

throughout the rest of the sultanate rule till Akbar conquered it in the 16th

century. In the Deccan, the Bahmanis of Gulbarga declared themselves

independent. Later they broke up into five sultanates. The fabled Bukka and his

five brothers set up the Vijayanagar empire.

The Tughlaqs had one more moment of glory when Feroze Shah ascended the throne.

He not only conquered some of the lost territories, but also built monuments in

dozens. Much of what one sees today of sultanate architecture in Delhi and its

neighbourhood were built by him. But Feroze Shah’s death threw the empire into

a chaos from which it never recovered fully. Gujarat proclaimed independent

sultanate, as did Malwa. Many of the earlier sultanate tribes, like the Ghoris

and Khiljis, prospered in provinces and carved out their own sultanates.

A new menace now appeared on the northwest frontier in the form of Timur the

Lame in 1398. He ransacked Delhi, massacred its inhabitants, and shook the

foundations of the sultanate, then held by the descendants of the Feroze. The

Sayyids succeeded the Tughlaqs, and in turn were ousted by the Lodis who were

great tomb-builders. The last Lodi, Ibrahim, was defeated by Babar, a great

grandson of Timur in the battle of Panipat which marked the beginning of Mughal

rule in India.

The sultanate period wasn’t all dark and sinister. There were quite a few

illustrious kings in this period, like Zainulabdin of Kashmir who came as a

John the Baptist to Akbar’s Christ. Even the ferocious Alauddin tolerated Hindu

kings, and even encouraged his son to marry a Hindu princess. Conversions and

reconversions were frequent and many of the conversions were for political

expediency as was that of Jadudas, son of ‘King’ Ganesh of Bengal.

A common misconception is that most of the Islamic architecture in India have

been Mughal. In terms of grandeur and aesthetics, the Mughals were surpassed by

none. But in terms of number, the sultanate period saw more Islamic building

activity than in any other part of the Islamic world. The finest contribution

of the sultans to monument-building was in bringing the dome. Sultanate

architects experimented with domes sitting on square foundations (One such

early experiment, that of the dome over Iltutmish’s tomb, has failed to this

day).

Culturally, the sultanate period was a natural succession to the earlier Hindu

period. The fame of India, as a land of wealth and scholarship, had spread

through the Arab world during the early Hindu period. The early Arabs came

mainly to trade, then to plunder, and finally to conquer. Even the plunderer

Mahmud was accompanied by the scholar Alberuni who carried hundreds of

camel-loads of books to translate into Persian.

The longest-lasting contribution of the sultans was to attempt at consolidating

the Indian state within Indian territory. The seat of power came to rest in

Delhi, which continues to this day. Even the British, who experimented with

Calcutta, finally abandoned it and sought legitimacy by ruling from Delhi.

LODI TOMBSIn the lap of power

By Prince Mathews Thomas

When Lady Willingdon decided to make a garden around the Lodi tombs in 1936,

little did she know that almost 70 years later the place would be as popular

among the Cupid’s-arrow-struck as among students of history and architecture.

India’s Muslim rulers were known for their luxurious lifestyle. They made sure

their final resting places matched the splendour of their life. A fine specimen

is the octagonal tomb of Sikander Lodi, who ruled the capital from 1489 to 1517.

Was Lodi scared that someone would damage the tomb? One does not know, but the

mini-fort surrounding the tomb has protected the structure well.

Lodi also built the other wonder in the garden’s precincts: the Bara Gumbad

Mosque. The three-domed square structure stands out, with its stucco decoration

and geometrical design. A tank in the centre of the courtyard appears to have

been filled later and a grave laid there (whose it is, no one knows).

Next to it is the Sheesh Gumbad or the dome of glass, so named for the glazed

blue tiles, few of which have survived. Giving a semblance of being

double-storeyed, the Gumbad combines features of Hindu and Islamic

architecture. Another product from the Sikander Lodi reign, the Gumbad has its

share of several unknown graves. To the south of the gardens is its oldest

structure, the tomb of Muhammad Shah, third ruler of the Sayyid dynasty.

The kings would be happy that their tombs are today located in an elite enclave,

housing diplomats and government personnel. The area retains its strings of

power.

JAUNPUR FRIDAY MOSQUESituated: Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh

Historic significance: Built in 1470 on a 6m high plinth by Husayn Shah

(1458-1483), the last ruler of the Sharqi dynasty, the mosque is also called

Bari Masjid or Jami Masjid. It consists of a long rectangular prayer hall

centered around a square sanctuary. The sanctuary is covered by a dome that

measures 11.4m in diameter. On either side are barrel-vaulted galleries that

are accessed from three arched openings along the courtyard facade.

Tall and stately

By Prince Mathews Thomas

Eight hundred years after it was built, the Qutab Minar still is the most

dominant feature of Delhi’s skyline. Its beauty and majesty are hardly matched

by contemporary architecture. Remarkably, the Minar maintains the record of

being the highest stone tower in India.

Unfortunately, the man who visualised the wonder did not live long enough to

enjoy the city’s view from the tower-top. Qutbuddin Aibek died when the first

storey was completed. The Minar, for which the foundation was laid in 1199, was

said to have been built to celebrate victory over the Rajputs. It rose to its

height of 72.5m under Qutbuddin Aibek’s son-in-law and successor, IItutmish in

1236. However, some historians say the construction finished only in 1357-68

during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

The five floors of the red sandstone structure are surrounded by a balcony that

encircles the Minar and are supported by stone brackets, which are decorated

with a honeycomb design. A bird’s eye view of the capital from the top can be

tempting enough to overcome the fear of climbing the 367 spiral steps.

Unfortunately, since the death of a few students in a stampede in 1981, the

fifth floor is a forbidden area.

Numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Nagari on the Minar reveal its history.

According to the inscriptions, it was repaired, first by Firoz Shah Tughlaq

after a lightning struck the tower, and a second time by Sikandar Lodi after

lightning struck again in 1503. After a calm of 300 years, the forces of nature

tormented the Minar again. An earthquake in 1803 is said to have nearly

destroyed it. Fortunately, there was a saviour among the otherwise-plundering

colonists. British Major Robert Smith is believed to have rebuilt it.

There was a challenger to Qutab Minar’s dominance. Alauddin Khalji wanted a

minar named after him to be the highest in the town. That too, twice as high as

the Qutab Minar. But the first-storey curse plagued his dream, too. Alauddin

Khalji could complete only the first storey of Alai Minar, which now has a

height of 25m. Sadly, he did not have a son-in-law to realise the dream.

As for Qutbuddin Aibek, he tried making the heavens happy by building

Quwwatul-Islam Mosque to the northeast of the Minar in 1198. It is a fitting

example of Sultanate architecture and is the earliest extant mosque in the

country. The southern gateway of the mosque, Alai-Darwaza, was constructed by

Alauddin Khilji in 1311. Regarded one of the most treasured gems of Islamic

architecture, it is the first building employing Islamic principles of

construction and ornamentation.

There is another first: the concept of a combined college and tomb. The tomb

belongs to Alauddin Khilji and the madrassa (college) was built by him. Another

proud member on the precincts of Qutab Minar is the famous Iron Pillar. It bears

an inscription in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script of the fourth century, which

says the pillar was set up as a Vishnudhvaja (flagstaff in honour of Vishnu).

How it came here is an unsolved mystery, though it’s said that those who can

hug the pillar from behind can expect a bounty. However, don’t go there

expecting to hug it; now, the pillar is barricaded.

QUTAB MINARSituated: Delhi

Historic significance: Is India’s highest stone tower conceived in 1193 by

Qutbuddin Aibek. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and in

1368, Firoz Shah Tughlak constructed the fifth and the last storey. Made of

fluted red sandstone covered with carvings and verses from the Quran, the Qutab

Minar is built on the ruins of Lal Kot or Red Citadel. Close to the mosque is

the Iron pillar (4th century) erected as a flagstaff in honor of Vishnu. How

the pillar was moved to its present location is a mystery. Made of 98 per cent

wrought iron, the pillar has stood 1,600 years without rusting or corroding.

Dead city, awake!By Anosh Malekar

What is cited as an excellent example of the composite culture of this country

is today a ‘dead city’ desperately in need of a fresh breath of life. But then

the mediaeval city of Champaner, in Gujarat, had always carried the curse of

frequent periods of desertions.

Stone Age lived here, but the reasons for their disappearance are not clear. Its

known history spans 12 centuries but its links with myths and legends are

numerous.

The earliest reference in the Pitha Nirnaya of the Shaktas (devotees of Devi)

reveals that a toe of the right foot of Shakti fell at the place where the

temple of Goddess Kali and her bhairava, Lakulisa stand today. The Sanskrit

drama Gangadasa Pratap Vilas Nataka indicates the existence of a palace,

stables, cowsheds, lakes and the Kali temple. There is another reference dating

to 1498 AD in a mix of Sanskrit and old Gujarati which refers to the place as

Mehmudabad.

Persian and Arabic sources simply refer to a strategically located town when

describing the wars. The texts do not reveal details of the town planned by the

Rajput rulers on the plateau, or the city constructed by the Sultans at the base

of the hill.

The Miraat-i-Sikandari, however, points out how Indian architects adopted the

technique of garden houses from Khorassan, and introduced this great art here.

The fine mosques and monuments that were laid now stand silent witnesses to the

glorious past.

Champaner, an hour’s drive from Vadodara, was a highly developed city of the

15th and 16th century. But socio-political factors led to its decline. The

greatest upheaval was witnessed in the 15th century with the rise of the

Muzaffari dynasty in Gujarat and the Khiljis in the Malwa.

The Chauhans of Champaner had ruled over this virtual no-man’s land for about

two centuries, controlling the land movement between coastal Gujarat and the

inland region of Malwa. Finally, an intense inter-state struggle led Mehmud

Begda, the sultan of Gujarat, to lay a 20-month siege of Champaner and remove

its ruler, Patai Raval, in 1484 AD. Mehmud decided to build a large city with a

strong garrison in the densely forested area surrounding Pavagadh.

It took almost half a century to create a new capital. The city, renamed

Mehmudabad, would play a dual role—as a state capital and defence frontier in

the east of Gujarat.

It developed into a prosperous centre of power, but not for long. In 1535 AD,

Humayun conquered and pillaged Champaner. The decision to shift the capital

back to Ahmedabad with the decline of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat led

to a near total desertion of the region.

What the ravages of war have left today is a trail of largely unexcavated land,

with a historical and cultural heritage cradled in an impressive landscape.

There are prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of the early Hindu

capital, remains of the 15th century capital as well as fortifications,

palaces, temples, mosques, residential precincts and water installations from

the 8th century to the 14th century.

While Pavagadh, a place of reverence to the Hindus, Jains and Muslims, receives

hordes of visitors on holy days, very few venture into the ruins of Champaner.

The site is spread over 6km and almost 120 monuments have been identified, of

which 36 are protected by the ASI. That the site drew national and worldwide

attention—it made it to the UNESCO list a couple of years ago—is due to the

efforts of Heritage Trust, a voluntary body active in Vadodara.

The recognition accorded to this complex of monuments is all the more noteworthy

given the current atmosphere in Gujarat where barriers are sought to be erected

between communities. Champaner is living proof that centuries ago, no such

communal divisiveness existed.

CHAMPANERSituated: At Pavagadh, Gujarat

Historic significance: Was an ancient fort captured by the Muslim king of

Gujarat, Mehmud Begda, in the late 15th century after a long siege against the

Khichi Chauhan Rajputs. Begda established his new capital here in 1484 AD and

changed the town’s name to Mehmudabad. The Jami Masjid here is one of the

finest examples of Sultanate architecture. It is an imposing structure on a

high plinth with two tall minarets 30m high, 172 pillars and seven mihrabs. It

has a central dome and carved entrance gates with fine stone jalis and rich

decoration.

Monumental buildersMughal period: Their political history can be traced through what they built

By R. Prasannan

The word Mughal is a corruption of the word Mongol. The Mongols had tried to

invade India many times during the sultanate period and even earlier. Finally

they got a foothold after the sultanate began to disintegrate under the

successors of Feroze Shah Tughlaq who were defeated by Timur. Timur did not

want to stay in India, but left a governor in Punjab.

Racially, Babur was not a Mongol but a Turk from modern Uzbekistan, but he

claimed descent from both Chengiz on his mother’s side and Timur on his

father’s side. Deprived of his own little principality in Ferghana, and having

failed to retake his great grandfather’s city of Samarkhand, he turned to

India, allegedly on the invitation of a few discontented Lodi and Rajput

nobles. The battle of Panipat in 1526 changed the story of India.

The tale of the Mughals is too well-known to be retold here. The real founder of

the Mughal empire was Babur’s grandson and Humayun’s son Akbar, the greatest

ruler to sit on an Indian throne after Asoka a millennium and half earlier. In

his long reign of six decades, Akbar built the greatest, wealthiest and

best-ruled empire of its time on earth, surpassing the Persian. The word

‘Mughal’ or Mogul in modern English, became a synonym for wealth, power,

splendour and beauty. The revenue earned from Akbar’s Indian empire was more

than seven times the revenue earned from the British empire’s worldwide

colonies in that century.

The afterglow of Akbar illuminated the empires of his son Jehangir and grandson

Shahjehan, perhaps the world’s greatest monument builder. The decline started

with Aurangazeb’s fanaticism. His successors had neither the vision of Akbar

nor the dogmatism of Aurangazeb. Most of them were debauchers who whiled away

their time in the gilded palace of Shahjehan as the Europeans were nibbling at

their empire.

The story of Mughal architecture reflects the story of the rise and fall of the

Mughal empire itself. The first notable monument was Humayun’s tomb, made

largely of red sandstone, by his wife. It is beautiful, yet a bit unwieldy and

unsure. But when one comes to the Taj Mahal one sees perfection in every sense

of the term. The third monument to be studied is Safdarjung’s tomb in Delhi,

built during the decline. Built in the same style as Humayun’s tomb and the

Taj, it looks very much a cheap imitation.

Even the political history of the Mughals could be traced through a study of

what they built. Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri, built with red sandstone, reflected a

grand experiment in consolidation. By the time Shahjehan came on the scene,

Rajasthan had been mostly conquered and marble was available in plenty.

Shahjehan’s fascination with marble can still be traced at virtually every

monument he laid his hands on. If Akbar’s architecture was characterised by

robustness and grandeur, Shahjehan added a touch of femininity and

sensuousness.

It could be said that the Mughals came to India with the purpose of building.

Babur is said to have invited the disciples of the famous Albanian architect

Sinan to India, but apparently none came. Anyway, he built a few gardens. The

construction boom started with Akbar, who is said to have himself worked on the

bricks and stones of Fatehpur Sikri.

If Hindu designs and styles appeared in sultanate architecture, it was mostly

because the workers were Hindus. But in the case of Akbar, there was a

conscious effort at synthesisation of Indian and Persian styles. His tomb at

Sikandra, which he himself designed, is said to have been inspired by Buddhist

viharas.

Architecturally, the story of the Mughal empire is this: Babur the gardener laid

the land, where Humayun couldn’t spend much time. Akbar built on the land,

Jehangir decorated it, Shahjehan enriched it, Aurangazeb neglected it, and his

descendants wasted it away.

TAJ MAHALSituated: On the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra, Uttar Pradesh

Historic significance: Was built by the fifth Mughal Emperor Shahjehan as the

tomb of his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal. History says that Prince Khurram (Shah

Jahan) fell in love with Arjuman Banu (Mumtaz Mahal) at the very first sight.

In 1612, at the age of 21, she married him and became his consort Mumtaz Mahal.

She died in 1630 while giving birth to her 14th child. On her deathbed, it is

said that Mumtaz asked the king to build a monument to immortalise their love.

Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1631 and was completed after 22 years in

1653 at Rs 32 million. Red sandstone, silver and gold, carnelian and jasper,

moonstone and jade, lapiz lazuli and coral were brought in from all over India

and central Asia. The white Makrana marble from Jodhpur took a fleet of 1,000

elephants to transport. Precious stones for the inlay came from Iraq, Punjab,

Egypt, Russia, Golconda, China, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean and

Persia.

Enchanting minaret

By Mahesh K.

Among the lesser known wonders of India is Bijapur’s Gol Gumbaz, the tomb of

Mohammed Adil Shah Gol, the seventh ruler of the Adil Shahi dynasty. Built at

his orders before his death, this gigantic mausoleum took 20 years to complete

and till today dominates the landscape of Bijapur.

The monument is 51m tall with three-metre thick walls. The square-shaped

building has a semi-circular dome on top and its four corners have

seven-storied octagonal spires. The central dome, second in size to the dome of

St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, stands unsupported by pillars.

The acoustics of this dome is such that sound is echoed 11 times. Even the tick

of a watch or the rustle of paper can be heard across 37 metres in the

Whispering Gallery. There is a 14-feet wide verandah where you can hear

whispers clearly even if seated at a distance of 130 feet, making it the only

monument in the world to have this unique feature.

Under the dome are tombs of the Sultan, his two wives, his mistress Rambha, his

daughter and grandson. The octagonal turrets and cornice are other attractions.

>From the gallery around the dome, one can view the town below. The building

complex has a mosque, a Naqqar Khana, a gateway and a dharmashala. The edifice

in front of the tomb has been converted into a museum.

The foundations of Bijapur or Vijayapura (meaning city of victory) were laid

during the reign of the Chalukyan dynasty of Kalyani between the 10th and 11th

centuries. The city, which is the land of five rivers—Bhima, Krishna, Doni,

Malaprabha and Ghataprabha—came under Allaudin Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, and

under the Bahamani kings of Bidar in 1347.

The Adil Shahi dynasty was founded by Yusuf Adil Khan, son of Sultan Mahmud II

of Turkey, who was appointed governor of Bijapur in 1481 by Mohammed III. He

fled his country after his father’s death and Mahmud Gavan, the prime minister

of Mohammed III, bought him as a slave. When the Bahamani power declined at

Bidar, Yusuf declared his independence in 1489 and founded the Adil Shahi

dynasty which survived till its annexation by Mughal emperor Aurangazeb in

1686.

Bijapur, also known as the land of saints, experienced a boom in architectural

activity; its 50 mosques, 20 tombs and palaces are evidence to this fact. The

city’s Muslim connection is evident in historical ruins like Ibrahim Roza, Upli

Buruz, Mulk-e-Maidan, Jumma Masjid, Bara Kaman and Asar Mahal. The Islamic style

of architecture is its highlight and Indian craftsmen can be spotted along with

Persian craftsmen and architects who were deployed by the Muslim rulers of the

Deccan. Minarets, domes and burial chambers conjure up images of the Arabian

Nights.

GOL GUMBAZSituated: Bijapur, Karnataka

Historic significance: The structure is an astounding acoustic feat. Also called

the ‘Whispering Dome’, it is the second largest in the world, the largest being

St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The dome, 124ft in diameter, stands unsupported

by pillars. The acoustical system in the dome carries the faintest whisper

around the dome and returns it to the listener nine times louder. The

architecture is unique with the four minarets being the four staircases leading

to the top dome.

AGRA FORTSituated: Agra

Historic significance: This was the pride of six generations of Mughals. The

Agra Fort was once an ordinary brick fort held by the Chauhan Rajputs. Akbar

rebuilt it with red sandstone and in the next two centuries, his family added

almost 500 buildings inside. Sadly, today only about 30 survive. Ironically, an

architectural wonder in the fort, built by Akbar and renovated by Shahjehan

hastened the latter’s arrest. The Shahi Hanam has a water supply system whose

mechanism still remains unknown. Shahjehan was forced to surrender when his son

Jehangir besieged the fort and stopped the water supply from the river. The

fort’s other legendary constituents include the two storey underground complex

of harems and palaces, the beautiful red Jehangiri and Akbari Palaces and

Jehangir’s huge bath tub shaped like a cup. Today three-fourths of the Fort is

under Army control.

City of love and joy

By Shubham Shukla

Of all the places in Hindustan, none is more beautiful than Mandu after rains,

wrote Mughal emperor Jehangir after spending his youthful days at Mandu with

his Persian wife, Nur Jahan. Mandu is a celebration in stone: of life and joy,

of elegance and intelligence in architecture and of love between Baz Bahadur

and his consort Rani Rupmati.

Abdul Fazl, an emissary from the court of Akbar, narrates in one of his books

that the fort was built by Raja Jai Singh Deva. Legend goes that once a straw

cutter’s sickle turned into gold. Thinking that his sickle needed repair, he

took it to a blacksmith. Mandan, the blacksmith, kept the sickle and later

presented it to his king, Raja Jai Singh, who named the Mandu Fort after him.

Hindu kings ruled here till 1305, when the Muslims took over. Thus, the

influence of both in the architecture. Moreover, the Hindu artists, while

carving the pillars and walls for the Mughals, have tried to leave marks of

their religion as well.

Mandu is often called ‘the beauty spot of Malwa’. The Muslim rulers, who named

the city Shadiabad (city of joy), built some exquisite palaces.

Inside the royal enclave, the ship-like Jahaz Mahal built by Sultan

Ghiyas-ud-din-Khilji is unique. Built between two artificial lakes, it is a

two-storied palace. Local people insist that Khurram was honoured with the

title ‘Shahjada’ in one of the palace courtyards.

Another attraction is the Hindola Mahal or swinging palace. It has inverted

sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses. Some say it was the handiwork of the

Muslim rulers while others opine that the Hindu artisans did so to conceal

their work.

The palace has a Shahi Hamam (steam bath system) and a Proscenium theatre

(designed to be viewed only from the front). Other places of interest inside

the enclave are Dilawar Khan’s mosque, Tiger Balcony and Taveli Mahal.

Another important historical building around Mandu is Hoshang Shah’s Tomb. The

place is famous for its use of marble for the first time in the country. On one

of the doors, it is inscribed that four architects of Shahjehan visited Mandu in

1659 AD. Adjacent to the tomb is the huge Jami Masjid, inspired by the great

mosque of Damascu.

Among other palaces, the most interesting ones are Baz Bahadur’s Palace and Rani

Rupmati’s pavilion. The balladeers at Malwa still praise the romance of the

Muslim-Hindu royal lovers. Rani, it is said, never ate without casting a look

at the Narmada.

Thus, when she came to Mandu, a pavilion was built within 48 hours over an army

check point so that she could have a look at Narmada. Baz Bahadur’s Palace is

massive with arches and a swimming pool. In 1561, when Adam Khan attacked

Malwa, Baz Bahadur ran away and Rani committed suicide.

MANDUSituated: 283 km from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Historic significance: Is the finest example of Afghani and Mughal architecture.

First built in the 10th century by the Paramaras, it was rebuilt by the Khiljis

of Delhi when they conquered Mandu in 1304. So very little of Hindu

architecture is left. Some of the famous structures are The Jahaz Mahal (or the

Ship Palace) constructed by Ghiyas-ud-din for his harem that housed 15,000

women. Hoshang’s Tomb reputed to be the oldest marble structure in India, is

supposed to be Shahjehan’s inspiration for Taj Mahal. The tomb was constructed

in 1435 and depicts typical Hindu influences including carved marble lattice

screens (jali). Mandu also houses the Buddhist Bagh Caves that date from 400 AD

to 700 AD.

GOLKONDA FORT

Engineering skillBy Lalita Iyer

One of the most magnificent fort complexes in the country, Golkonda, or

'gollakonda' meaning shepherd's hill, was built by three dynasties, the

Kakatiyas, the Bahmanis and the Qutub Shahis, the major contribution coming

from the Shahis.

Built on a 400-ft high hill, the Qutub Shahis had expanded the modest structures

built by the Kakatiyas in the thirteenth century into a fortress complex that

occupied the entire area of the hill and overflowed into the terrain around it.

Its outside wall, around 10 miles in length and from 17 to 34 feet thick is

broken by 87 semi-circular bastions, 50 to 60 feet high. It took the Qutub

Shahis 62 years to build this fort that was completed in 1525.

The complex shows incredible engineering and architectural skills.Today visitors

to the Golkonda wonder at the acoustics system. Even the rustle of leaves at the

Fateh darwaza, at the lowest level of the fort area, can be heard at the Bala

Hisar pavilion on the top of the acropolis.

In fact the fort is really a complex of four forts, that remained unconquered

till a traitor opened the Fateh darwaza for Aurangazeb's army.

At the top of the hill is the much talked about Bala Hisar baradari, a

double-storeyed and twelve-arched structure.

Bala Hisar also houses the small prison where the great saint Bhadrachala

Ramadas was imprisoned for appropriating state funds to build a temple for

Rama.

The water supply system was no less ingenious. Water was stored in cisterns at

the foot of the hill and transported upwards through a series of Persian wheels

via clay pipes. Remnants of the network of clay pipes can still be seen.

FATEHPUR SIKRISituated: 26 miles from Agra

Historic significance: Blends both Islamic and Hindu elements in its

architectural style. When Jehangir was born to him, Akbar named him after the

Sufi saint Sheik Salim Chisti and built the new capital in 1571 to mark his

birth. Red sandstone was used. However, after the work was completed 15 years

later, there was lack of adequate water supply and the pristine complex was

abandoned. The Panch Mahal, or Palace of Five Storeys, and the Buland Darwaza,

a massive gate which provides entrance to the complex are some of the finest

specimens of Mughal architecture. The complex is also well known for its

mammoth chess board, where human figures were used as chess pieces and moved at

the emperor’s will.

BARA IMAMBARASituated: Lucknow

Historic significance: Also called the Asafai Imambara, the hall is said to be

the world’s largest arched room without pillars. Built in a famine relief

programme in 1784 by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula, it signifies the Nawabi architecture

with a central hall, one of the largest vaulted galleries in the world. The

roof has been put together by interlocking bricks without using a beam. The

upper floor, Bhulbhulaiya, is a labyrinth. Rumi Darwaza, an exquisite gate

built by Asaf-ud-Daula, is a replica of the one in Istanbul.

Wells of hope

By Deepak Tiwari

Rahiman pani rakheye, bin paani sab soon,

Paani gaye na ubere, moti, manas, chun.

(Preserve water; without it everything is empty. Without water pearl cannot be

made, flour cannot be kneaded and human life would be impossible.)

Poet Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana

When Rahim wrote this in the first decade of the 17th century, he was preaching

what he practised. As subedar of Burhanpur (called Deccan ka Darwaza or gateway

to the south), he constructed a marvellous water management system to quench the

thirst of over two lakh armymen stationed in the town. Rahim was one of the nine

jewels of emperor Akbar’s court.

Burhanpur held an important place in the Mughal scheme of things. Since it acted

as a base for the Mughal army to wage battles against the southern states it

always remained a strategically important place. Jehangir was governor of

Burhanpur before he became emperor while Shahjehan had a more emotional

attachment with the place. His wife Mumtaz Mahal’s original tomb is in

Burhanpur.

Though Burhanpur was surrounded by rivers Tapti and Utavali, collecting water

remained a challenge. So Rahim devised a water management system. He entrusted

the task to Persian engineer Tabkutul Arz, who created an underground water

management system with over 200 kundis (wells) spread over seven kilometres. It

was named Khaire Naire Zaari, meaning ‘precious canal water for public’. Later,

it came to be known as Kundi Bhandara (collection of wells).

The system works on the principle of gravity; water travels from the foothills

of Satpura to Burhanpur town without being pumped. "The system was developed to

effectively check the flow of rainwater from the Satpura hills flowing towards

river Tapti," said Jai Nagada, a journalist. "Water flows from the first kundi

on the Satpura hill (almost 30m above ground level) to the last kundi. The

diameter [0.75m to 1.75m] and depth [6 to 24m] of kundis vary according to

their location."

As many as 103 wells can still be seen from the surface. In olden days people

used to go inside the tunnel using the iron stairs. After the system was

partially revived, thanks to the efforts of a maverick collector, Praveen Garg,

a lift was installed at well no. 2. "As children we used to play inside the

canal and have seen these kundis collapsing," said Mohammad Salim Beg, the

canal’s caretaker.

Salim cleared the debris and made the canal functional when Burhanpur faced a

water shortage in May 2000. "Before 2000 water reached only till kundi no. 13,"

he said. "Farmers had made horizontal holes into the canal to fill their wells;

some even installed pump sets in the kundis."

Over 5,000 people now benefit from the system. Over the years the storage

capacity has declined considerably. In the beginning it could store over 10

lakh litres; now it is down to 40,000 litres.

KUNDI BHANDARA, BURHANPURSituated: Madhya Pradesh

Historic significance: Since the 17th century, Burhanpur acted as a base for the

Mughal army to wage battles against the southern states and was strategically

important. Though Burhanpur was surrounded by rivers Tapti and Utavali,

collecting water remained a challenge. A water management system was built by a

Persian engineer Tabkutul Arz, who created an underground water management

system with over 200 kundis (wells) spread over 7 km. It was named Khaire Naire

Zaari, meaning ‘precious canal water for public’. Later, it came to be known as

Kundi Bhandara (collection of wells).

Architectural legacyEuropean period: Their architectural style reflected the

grandeur of the west and the artistic sublimity of the east

By Prince Mathews Thomas

Chronologically speaking, the Europeans arrived in India even before the

Mughals. By the time Babur’s musketmen blasted the Lodi empire at Panipat,

Vasco da Gama had arrived thrice, Affonso de Albuquerque had built the first

European fort in Kochi, and also the first European church there, and even

captured Goa which was later to become the seat of Portugal’s eastern empire.

Yet European power had to wait out the entire Mughal period to consolidate in

India. They existed on the periphery of the empire, waxing when the empire

favoured them, and waning when the emperor was ill-disposed, building European

churches and trading fortresses on both the east and west coasts, but never

venturing into the heartland. But in that intervening period, they destroyed

the Arab monopoly over sea trade.

Each of the European powers had its own trademark colonial characteristic. The

Portuguese seemed anxious to convert the locals to their sect of Christianity,

thus alienating even the native Christians. They even misread Akbar’s academic

interest in Christian theology as a sign of willingness to be baptised! The

Dutch, essentially a nation of sea-traders, didn’t have the strategic vision to

back their trade with armed might. The liberal French mingled well with the

natives, but, caught in their own post-revolutionary republican confusion,

lacked a state will to back their adventures in India.

Only the British, already having consolidated as a nation-state in Europe and

propelled by mercantile parliamentarism, could consolidate in India. They

cleverly read the signs of decline in the Mughal empire, backed the right

rebels and protected the empire when that was expedient. Their battles against

the Marathas in the Gangetic plain was even interpreted as an attempt at

helping to reestablish the Mughal emperor’s authority over the region.

Plassey is often described as the turning point that helped the consolidation of

British power in India. However the complete elimination of any European

challenge to the British were carried out in two other battles— against the

French Wandiwash in 1760 in the south, and the last Mugal presence in Buxar in

1764 in the north.

But the real empire-building started with Cornwallis and Wellesley who also

built the stately government house in Calcutta. Even while sitting in Calcutta,

they realised the importance of controlling the peninsula which was the hub of

sea trade and power. So they first vanquished Tipu of Mysore, and then turned

their attention to northern and central India and by 1818 Maratha power had

been completely vanquished.

The attention now turned towards the frontiers. The Gorkhas of Nepal were

defeated, but not conquered, and made allies against any sort of Chinese

adventurism. Burma was subdued next and then attention turned towards the

northwest. Afghanistan was neutralised through wars and diplomacy against the

rising power of the Russians. It was then that the kingdom of the Sikhs was

thrown into chaos after the death of Ranjit Singh. After four wars Punjab was

finally annexed.

Real imperial dreams, as distinct from pure colonial aggrandizement, were

dreamed after Queen Victoria was declared Queen Empress of India, especially

under Curzon, the first 20th century viceroy. A passionate lover of India’s

monuments and antiquity which he wanted to get replicated under British rule,

he got the Taj and other buildings restored to their old glory. Then he laid

the foundation for a marble monument, fashioned after the Taj, to be built in

Kolkata in memory of Victoria.

The legacy of Curzon had its impact on construction style also. The Victoria

Terminus in Mumbai, completed in 1888, was totally in Italian-Gothic style,

whereas post-Curzon, there was a syncretisation of the oriental and the

western. Finally, when the empire moved to Delhi claiming Mughal continuance,

the new capital was planned in a style that reflected the grandeur of the west

and the artistic sublimity of the east. The Viceroy’s House and the two

secretariats, now called Rashtrapati Bhavan and North Block and South Block,

were the result.

GOAN CHURCHESSituated: Goa

Historic significance: Mostly built in laterite and lime plaster, these

structures echo the Portuguese legacy. Built between the 16th and the 17th

centuries, the churches and cathedrals are reminiscent of Renaissance and

baroque styles. The main churches are Se’ Cathedral, Convent of St Francis

Assisi, Chapel of St Catherine, Basilica of Bom Jesus, Church of Lady of Rosary

and the Church of St Augustine. The Basilica of Bom Jesus has the mortal remains

of St Francis Xavier. The Se’ Cathedral with its Tuscan exterior, Corinthian

columns, raised platform and barrel-vault is typically Renaissance

architecture. Except for a few statues which are in stone, most of the other

statues of the saints, Mother Mary and Jesus are first carved in wood and then

painted.

Majestic landmark

By Quaied Najmi

Every day, over 30 lakh commuters scurry in and out of the Chhatrapati Shivaji

Terminus (CST). But in their hurry to get on with life, hardly anyone stops to

admire the 117-year-old building. The Unesco, however, took notice of its

Victorian Gothic Revival architecture and put it on the World Heritage list

last year. With 1,100 suburban and 68 long-distance train services daily, the

CST, which was called Victoria terminus till 1996, is perhaps the first

still-in-use railway station to be given the honour. The daily ticket sales in

the railway’s suburban section with 67 stations alone exceed Rs 28 lakh.

The building’s sculptural details like the two giant lions, a tiger, delicate

carvings of gargoyles, figures of large and small animals, dancing peacocks on

the windows and a 16.5-feet statue of a lady holding a flaming torch in her

right hand and a wheel in her left are amazing. Also striking are images of the

10 directors of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway who laid India’s first rail

line between Mumbai and Thane and functioned from this building. The C-shaped

building with a high ceiling was designed by British architect Frederic William

Stevens and took 10 years to finish. The architecture is a blend of the Gothic,

Mughal and Hindu styles and the skyline, turrets and pointed arches bear close

resemblance to the architecture of Indian palaces.

The main booking office has the choicest Italian marble, blue stone, elaborate

stone arches with carvings, tessellated floor, dadoes of glazed tiles, and

galleries with ornamental iron work by students of Sir J.J. School of

Architecture. The roof is painted azure with gold stars, some of which have

lost their sheen, but will get it back soon. After all, it is the only Indian

railway site to be marked World Heritage after the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway

in 1999. It is the second heritage site in Mumbai, the other being the Elephanta

Caves.

Located in the heart of Mumbai, the CST building and its platforms occupy a

prime real estate of 80 acres. In 1888, the structure cost Rs 26,54,111 to

build. Today the same money would only be just enough to buy a 1,000 sq. ft

flat in the suburbs or a 200 sq. ft room in south Mumbai!

CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI TERMINUSSituated: Mumbai, Maharashtra

Historic significance: Formerly known as the Victoria Terminus. It is an example

of Victorian Gothic revival architecture. It became a symbol for Mumbai as a

major mercantile port city on the Indian subcontinent within the British

Commonwealth. Designed on Italian models by F.W. Stevens, the terminal was

built over 10 years starting 1878. However, the stone dome, turrets and pointed

arches are a examples of Indian architecture.

On the right track

By Tapash Ganguly

On December 2, 1999, UNESCO declared the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (DHR) a

World Heritage Site. The inscription said it was "the first, and still the most

outstanding example of a hill passenger railway. Opened in 1881, it applied bold

and ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective

rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. It is still fully

operational and retains most of its original features intact".

While evaluating the application, one of the two parameters UNESCO set was

whether it has brought about socio-economic development in the region. DHR got

full marks for it.

Franklin Prestage, the agent of the Eastern Bengal Railway first mooted the idea

in 1878, of connecting Siliguri in the foothills of the Himalayas with

Darjeeling, a distance of 82 km by a railway line. Initially, it did not find

favour with the Government of India, though Prestage said a railway line would

reduce the cartage rate by half and still earn a profit. At that time, because

of bullock-cart transportation, rice, which cost Rs 98 a tonne at Siliguri, was

sold at Rs 238 in Darjeeling.

Before the start of the DHR, it took about a month to reach Darjeeling from

Kolkata. One had to travel by rail from Howrah to Sahebgunj, a distance of 352

km; then take a ferry across the Ganga to Carragola; then travel by bullock

cart to the river opposite Dingra Ghat; after crossing it, one had to take a

bullock cart or palki (palanquin) to Siliguri. From there, you could go either

by bullock cart or palki or on horseback to Darjeeling. Despite formidable

opposition from the public works department, Prestage’s proposal was finally

approved, thanks to the intervention of Viceroy Lord Lytton.

Prestage set up the Darjeeling Steam Tramway Company to construct the 2ft gauge

hill railway. The capital was raised within India and Lord Lytton was one of

the shareholders. The estimated cost was Rs 14 lakh, but the sum spent on DHR,

including rolling stock, was Rs 17 lakh. By 1891, the total investment went up

to Rs 30 lakh, which works out to Rs 60,000 for 1.6 km. The construction work

started in 1879 and the line was opened to the public on July 4, 1881.

Tindharia, the first ‘reversing’ station on the line, is a reminder of how

difficult it was to set up the line.

It was here the engineer received his first setback. Deep erosion in the

hillside made it impossible to employ a gradient within the limits of railway

transport. There seemed to be no alternative but to admit failure. But

suddenly, the engineer’s wife said, "Darling, if you can’t go ahead, why don’t

you come back?"

This idea, of climbing mountains, known as ‘Z’ reversing stations, is simple.

The train runs forward almost to the edge of the cliff, then backwards at an

oblique angle up the hillside, then forward again, this time higher than the

original track to avoid the problem of land erosion.

Ghum station (7,407 ft) is the highest point on the DHR. After that there is a

descent of four miles down a spur to Darjeeling station (6,812 ft.)

On October 20, 1948, the Indian government took over the railway. In the

beginning, it was profitable and used to pay its shareholders handsome

dividends. But after its amalgamation with Indian Railways and facing stiff

competition from road transport, it became a loss-making unit.

In the early 80s of the last century there was a plan to close it down

permanently. But the UNESCO’S conferment of the honour of a World Heritage Site

saved DHR from an inglorious end.

Today, to encourage tourism and bolster its sagging coffers DHR is offering

package deals to tourists.

DARJEELING RAILWAY PROJECTSituated: As a 51-mile stretch from Siliguri to Darjeeling

Historic significance: Uses neither rack mechanism nor cable and moves only on

adhesion. Built by Franklin Prestage, the train goes up to Ghum, 7,407 feet

above sea level. The only other railway in the world that reaches a higher

altitude is in the Andes where the Cusco station is at 14,000 feet. It is said

that Prestage’s dream was to build a narrow gauge rail track along the hill

road alignment. However, he couldn’t move beyond the 14th mile, until one night

his wife whispered to him, "If you can’t go forward, why don’t you go back

darling?" This inspired him and every time the gradient got too steep, Prestage

brought the tracks back a few yards and let it climb again at a slightly

different point, sketching a zigzag route, six times in the 51-mile stretch.

More Indian than you think

By Prince Mathews Thomas

The British wanted it to be their answer to the American White House. Though the

answer was good enough, the British didn’t anticipate that within 17 years of

building the Viceroy House, they would have to leave the country and the

architectural wonder would be renamed Rashtrapati Bhavan, home to India’s

President.

Today, the head of the Indian Republic occupies just a handful of the 340 rooms.

But the 354-acre complex is an apt example of the expertise of a man who wanted

the Bhavan to be an object of admiration forever. No wonder Edwin Lutyens

didn’t mind that the 17-year assignment earned him just £5,000. In the end it

earned him a place in the history books.

Lutyens was not a fan of the Indian school of building. For him, The Taj Mahal

was just ‘pretty’. He rejected the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge’s suggestion that the

house should be an example of Euro-Indian architecture.

Ironically, Rashtrapati Bhavan glorifies the Rajput and the Mughal style of

decoration. Be it the use of pink sandstone that Akbar used in Fatehpur Sikri,

the Mughal Gardens, the very dominant black dome influenced by the Stupa at

Sanchi or even the use of chajjas, chhatris and jaalis though a few of the

jaalis are European in inspiration.

Another ‘Indian’ feature of the Bhavan is the use of pillars akin to Indian

temples. It is said that the idea to adopt such bells in the pillars came from

a Jain temple at Moodabidri in Karnataka. Lutyens also recognised the place of

elephants in Indian culture, using the animal motif extensively on pillars,

gates and basements. And another motif, the lotus, adorns the Jaipur column.

The fountains of Mughal Gardens are designed in the shape of the flower’s

leaves.

The decision to build the Bhavan was taken in 1911 and the project was to take

four years on a budget of Rs 60 lakh. While it took four times the time, the

budget shot up to Rs 1.4 crore. Indian builders, like Sujan Singh, were part of

the construction, but have rarely been given their due.

The huge halls, high roofs, expensive rugs and carpets, ageless paintings and

the luxurious furniture went well with the lifestyle of the viceroys.

But when the first Indian occupier, Chakravati Rajagopalachari took office as

the Governor General of the new nation, he preferred the more modest rooms,

which is now the Family Wing of the President. The then viceroy’s more opulent

apartments have been turned into the Guest Wing.

The Bhavan’s Ashok Hall and its frescoes are perhaps the most awe-inspiring and

also a bit ‘magical’. Try staring at Fateh Ali Khan on the white horse in the

centre of the painting, and he will stare back, from every angle. And did you

know that the floor of Durbar Hall, where gallantry and civilian awards are

given, is on level with the top of India Gate? Only rarely does one get it so

right.

RASHTRAPATI BHAVANSituated: West end of Rajpath, Delhi

Historic significance: Designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and completed in 1929, this

building was formerly the Vice-Regal lodge (viceroy’s house) during the British

Raj. Built in two shades of sandstones, the palace cost about Rs 1.4 crore,

covering an area of 18,580 sq. m, bigger than Louis XIV’s palace at Versailles.

The architecture is a combination of Mughal and European styles. There is the

4th century statue of Buddha behind the President’s chair.

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